Marijuana

The trafficking and abuse of marijuana are a leading drug threat to the United States. The availability of marijuana is stable at high levels, and both law enforcement and public health agencies consistently identify marijuana as the most commonly used illicit drug in the country. The overall demand for marijuana is at high levels. Drug markets across the country are supplied with significant quantities of marijuana produced domestically and in foreign source areas (chiefly Mexico, but also Canada, Colombia, and Jamaica). Marijuana transportation and subsequent distribution by a wide range of criminal groups, gangs, and independent dealers are commonplace throughout the country, resulting in an overall domestic market for marijuana that is strong and stable. Primary market areas for marijuana, based on national-level distribution only, include Chicago, Dallas/Houston, Los Angeles/San Diego, Miami, New York, Phoenix/Tucson, and Seattle. Other significant markets for marijuana include Atlanta, Denver, and Detroit.

NDTS 2003 data show that 13.1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identified marijuana as their greatest drug threat. Regionally, more agencies in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic (23.0%), Great Lakes (19.7%), and Southwest regions (12.4%) identified marijuana as their greatest threat than did those in the West Central (4.2%), Southeast (4.0%), and Pacific regions (2.1%). Marijuana followed heroin and crack cocaine in the Northeast/Mid-Atlantic region, crack and methamphetamine in the Great Lakes and Southeast regions, and methamphetamine and crack in the Southwest, West Central, and Pacific regions as the greatest drug threat.

As suggested by such state and local rankings, many consider marijuana, in comparison with drugs such as crack cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine, a lesser threat overall with regard to public health and safety. Nonetheless, marijuana is by no means a risk-free drug. During intoxication, users experience impaired memory, judgment, and coordination, exposing themselves and others to harm through vehicular, household, and occupational accidents. In addition, increased heart rate--some 30 to 50 percent higher than normal--is the most consistent physiological effect of marijuana, and taking other drugs with marijuana can accelerate the increase further. Marijuana's long-term effects include those related to smoking, the primary method of administration. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), because marijuana contains carcinogens and irritants, long-term smoking of marijuana increases the risk of respiratory problems as well as the risk of cancer of the head, neck, and lungs. NIDA also reports that impaired memory and learning skills can persist in marijuana users after intoxication; however, the permanence of this effect is uncertain.

The short-term psychoactive effects of smoking marijuana include euphoria and relaxation; hence, marijuana use is seldom associated with violence. But violence is associated somewhat with marijuana production and distribution. For example, more than 3,500 weapons were seized during cannabis eradication efforts involving DEA in 2002, and reporting from various law enforcement agencies has identified homicides, shootings, and home invasions related to marijuana distribution in recent years. NDTS 2003 data indicate, however, that a relatively small percentage (4.6%) of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identify marijuana as the drug most contributing to violent crime in their areas. An association between marijuana and property crime is stronger, as evidenced by the 11.8 percent of state and local agencies across the country that identified marijuana as the drug most contributing to property crime in their areas.

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Availability

Marijuana is widely available throughout the United States, and this availability is relatively stable overall. Except for one Pulse Check source (Chicago) describing marijuana as somewhat available, every DEA Field Division, HIDTA, and other Pulse Check source reports that marijuana is readily, widely, or commonly available. Most reporting also indicates that availability is stable. Specific mention of increasing marijuana availability is included in reporting from just one DEA Field Division (Detroit), four HIDTAs (Lake County, Midwest, Milwaukee, and Oregon), and two Pulse Check sources (Boston and Denver) while only one Pulse Check source (Philadelphia) reports a decline in availability.

An estimate of the marijuana available in the United States is not definitive, in large part because of limitations in eradication and seizure data, the unknown extent of indoor cultivation, and unsubstantiated or outdated crop estimates. In attempting to determine how much marijuana was available in the United States in 2001, the interagency Marijuana Availability Working Group established a range of 10,000 to 24,000 metric tons. This is a developmental estimate derived from analysis of limited data and thus contains a high degree of uncertainty.

According to NDTS data, 98.2 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide described marijuana availability as high or moderate; 96.9 percent described it as such in 2002. The proportions of agencies reporting high or moderate availability in 2003 ranged narrowly across the six regions from a low of 97.2 percent (Northeast/Mid-Atlantic) to a high of 99.0 percent (Great Lakes).

Commercial-grade marijuana, which includes buds, leaves, stems, and seeds from male and female plants, is the most prevalent type available. It is produced to a significant extent throughout the United States; however, a review of federal, state, and local law enforcement reporting suggests that commercial-grade marijuana produced in Mexico is more widespread in U.S. drug markets. Sinsemilla follows commercial-grade marijuana, regardless of source area, in prevalence. Higher in potency than commercial-grade marijuana because it includes only the buds and flowering tops from unpollinated female plants, most of the sinsemilla available in the United States is produced domestically and in Canada. Production of sinsemilla may also occur in Mexico to some extent.

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Given its widespread availability and the frequency with which marijuana is ancillary to law enforcement investigations targeting other drugs, marijuana is implicated in many federal investigations and arrests. For example, marijuana was involved in 40.4 and 43.1 percent of OCDETF investigations in FY2001 and FY2002, respectively, second only to cocaine. The proportion of OCDETF indictments in which marijuana is charged is smaller at 18.5 percent (FY2001) and 16.3 percent (FY2002), typically falling behind cocaine, crack, and methamphetamine. Marijuana (or cannabis) has been involved in a similar proportion of DEA arrests in recent years. In 2001, 18.8 percent of DEA arrests involved cannabis, while in 2002 the proportion was 18.3 percent, second only to cocaine in both years. Data from the USSC show that in FY2001 federal sentences involving marijuana accounted for approximately one-third (32.8%) of federal sentences involving all drug types, the most of any drug. The overwhelming majority of these federal sentences (97.1%) were for drug trafficking.

In 2002 almost 1,099 metric tons of marijuana were seized through investigations in which federal agencies participated, according to FDSS data, down from 1,214 metric tons in 2001. Texas, Arizona, California, and New Mexico continue to account for the vast majority of marijuana seized--nearly 1,016 metric tons in 2002 and 1,102 metric tons in 2001.

NFLIS data for 2002 indicate that cannabis/THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) was the drug most often identified by state and local forensic laboratories nationwide, accounting for 35.2 percent of total drug items analyzed. Regionally, laboratories in the Midwest most often identified cannabis/THC, followed by those in the South, Northeast, and West. In comparison, DEA System To Retrieve Information from Drug Evidence (STRIDE)¹⁵ data show that cannabis/THC was identified in 24.2 percent of total drug items submitted to DEA forensic laboratories for testing, second only to cocaine.

Marijuana prices, an indication of marijuana's steady availability, have been stable for several years, although prices range considerably from market to market depending on the type and potency available, quantity purchased, purchase frequency, buyer-seller relationship, and proximity to source. A typical national price range, according to DEA reporting, is $300 to $1,200 per pound for commercial-grade marijuana and $600 to $6,000 per pound for sinsemilla. Current retail prices reported for both commercial-grade and sinsemilla range from $5 to $50 per gram and $2 to $5 per joint, although there are reports of prices as high as $100 per gram and $20 per joint, most likely for sinsemilla.

Marijuana potency continues to rise overall. Reporting from the Potency Monitoring Project indicates that the average THC content in submitted samples of commercial-grade marijuana was 5.03 percent in 2001 and 5.14 percent in 2002.¹⁶ In those same years, the average THC content in submitted samples of sinsemilla was 9.60 and 11.42 percent, respectively. Rising marijuana potency is perhaps more a factor of the demand for better quality marijuana, however, than a reflection of marijuana's widespread availability. Marijuana testing at 9.0 percent THC or higher accounted for 15.3 percent of submitted samples in 2001 and 23.2 percent in 2002.

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Demand

Demand for marijuana is at high levels throughout the United States. More than 25 million persons aged 12 or older reported using marijuana in the past year, according to 2002 NSDUH data, representing 11.0 percent of the U.S. population over the age of 12. NSDUH data further show that percentages are high across various demographics as well. Among three primary age groups, rates of past year marijuana use were higher for those aged 12 to 17 (15.8%) and 18 to 25 (29.8%) than those 26 or older (7.0%). Past year use was higher for males (13.6%) than females (8.4%) and higher for non-Hispanics (11.2%) than Hispanics (9.0%).

National-level prevalence studies suggest that among adult users, marijuana use is highest among younger adults. MTF data, for example, show that rates of past year marijuana use for college students aged 19 to 22 were 35.6 and 34.7 percent in 2001 and 2002, respectively. In those same years, rates for young adults aged 19 to 28 were 29.2 and 29.3 percent. The most recent data from NSDUH show that 33.4 percent of adults aged 18 to 20 and 27.4 percent of those aged 21 to 25 reported past year marijuana use in 2002, compared with 14.2 percent of adults aged 26 to 34 and 5.3 percent of those 35 and older.

Data regarding past year adolescent use of marijuana are relatively high compared with rates of use for other major drugs of abuse; however, some indicators show downward trends. According to MTF data, rates of past year marijuana use in 2002 and 2003 decreased significantly for eighth graders, from 14.6 percent to 12.8 percent. Past year use among tenth and twelfth graders also trended downward, but the changes were not significant. Rates of past year marijuana use in 2002 and 2003 were 30.3 and 28.2 percent for tenth graders and 36.2 and 34.9 percent for twelfth graders. NSDUH 2002 data show that the rates of past year marijuana use for adolescents aged 12 to 13, 14 to 15, and 16 to 17 were 3.1, 15.7, and 29.0 percent, respectively.

PRIDE data reveal overall increases in student marijuana use between the 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 school years, when past year use increased significantly for both senior high (29.4% to 30.0%) and junior high students (8.3% to 11.7%). For twelfth graders, however, past year marijuana use was relatively stable in those school years at 35.7 and 35.5 percent, respectively, thus continuing the lowest annual rate of marijuana use indicated by PRIDE for twelfth graders since the 1994-1995 school year.

An estimated 2.6 million persons used marijuana for the first time in 2001, the latest year for which NSDUH incidence data are available, and the number of marijuana initiates has been similar since 1995. Such consistently large numbers of new users over time suggest that current high levels of marijuana use will not greatly diminish. However, increases or relative stability in the perception of risk or harm associated with marijuana use suggest that use may continue a downward trend in the near term, particularly among young people. For example, the rate of perceived harmfulness in smoking marijuana regularly increased significantly from 2002 to 2003 for eighth (71.7% and 74.2%) and tenth graders (60.8% and 63.9%), according to MTF, and was relatively stable during those years for twelfth graders. In addition, PATS data indicate that the percentage of teens aged 12 to 17 reporting that they believe there is great risk in using marijuana regularly fluctuated between 58 and 60 percent from 2000 to 2002.

The consequences of marijuana use as evidenced in ED visits and treatment admissions continue to rise; however, increases in recent years have not been significant. The estimated number of ED mentions for marijuana increased from 110,512 in 2001 to 119,472 in 2002, accounting for less than 10 percent of all ED drug mentions in both years. In three DAWN cities marijuana mentions increased significantly between 2001 and 2002: Newark, Miami, and Baltimore. Mentions decreased significantly in four others: Dallas, San Francisco, Chicago, and Seattle. San Francisco and Seattle had been sites of significant increases the previous 2 years. In 2002 the rate of marijuana-related ED mentions per 100,000 population was 47 nationwide. DAWN cities with the highest rates were Philadelphia (150 per 100,000), Detroit (146), and St. Louis (124). Philadelphia and Detroit have had the highest rates of marijuana mentions since 1998.

The number of admissions to publicly funded treatment facilities reporting marijuana as a primary substance increased from 231,358 in 1999 to 236,638 in 2000, accounting for approximately 14 and 15 percent, respectively, of total treatment admissions in those years. As has been typical in previous years, most marijuana-related admissions in 2000 involved male (75.9%) and white patients (56.6%), and marijuana accounted for most treatment admissions of patients aged 15 to 19 (53.4%) and those under 15 (54.3%). Again reflecting no notable change from previous years, most admissions reporting marijuana as a primary substance reported also abusing other substances (66.8%), and most were referred to treatment through the criminal justice system (56.4%).

Within the criminal justice system, marijuana is the illicit drug for which male arrestees most often test positive. The median percentage of males testing positive for marijuana was 41.5 percent in 2002, and more than half (52.8%) of male arrestees reported using marijuana in the past year.

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Production

The amount of marijuana produced domestically, although currently not quantified, is insufficient to meet the high demand for the drug in the United States. Consequently, drug markets throughout the country are supplied with marijuana produced domestically and in foreign source areas.

Domestic Production

Domestic cannabis cultivation occurs throughout the country and ranges from a few plants grown for personal use to thousands mass-cultivated by organized criminal groups, from outdoor plots to indoor operations, and from computerized hydroponics to organic grows. Small-scale operations in cities and smaller towns and communities across the country produce marijuana, in immeasurable amounts, that helps fill demand in localized drug markets or within peer distribution networks. Larger amounts of marijuana sufficient to supply high-volume drug markets for state, regional, or national distribution are produced on private and public lands in many areas of the country as well. Nonetheless, law enforcement reporting and eradication data suggest that California, Appalachia (Kentucky and Tennessee), Hawaii and, to a somewhat lesser extent, the Pacific Northwest (Washington and Oregon) are the primary domestic marijuana source areas.

Figure 10. Outdoor Cannabis Cultivation Areas


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DEA's Domestic Cannabis Eradication and Suppression Program (DCE/SP), which maintains statistics for cannabis eradication efforts undertaken by federal, state, and local agencies under the auspices of DCE/SP, reports the nationwide eradication of 3,341,840 outdoor- and indoor-cultivated cannabis plants in 2002, up from 3,304,760 plants in 2001. Most plants eradicated--more than 90 percent in both years--were from outdoor plots. Outdoor cannabis cultivation occurs in every U.S. state and territory including on public lands; however, it appears to be of particular concern in California, Hawaii, Kentucky, and Tennessee. These states accounted for approximately 80 percent of all outdoor-cultivated plants eradicated under the DCE/SP in 2001 and 2002.

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California is likely the leading domestic marijuana source area. The state solely accounted for more than one-third of outdoor cannabis plants eradicated under the DCE/SP program in 2001 (1,086,809 of 3,068,632) and 2002 (1,267,771 of 3,128,800). Humboldt, Mendocino, and Trinity Counties in northern California traditionally have been areas of high cultivation, typically of sinsemilla. The DEA San Francisco Field Division, Northern California and Central Valley HIDTAs, and state and local law enforcement agencies also identify Alameda, Contra Costa, Fresno, Kern, Lake, Madera, Merced, Monterey, Napa, Santa Cruz, Sonoma, and Tulare Counties as some other areas in which considerable cultivation has occurred in recent years. California also accounted for more than two-thirds of cannabis plants eradicated from NFS lands in 2001 (495,536 of 719,985) and 2002 (420,866 of 597,797). According to the USFS, 6 of the 10 leading national forests for plant eradication in 2001 and 8 of 10 in 2002 were in California, stretching from Cleveland National Forest near San Diego to Six Rivers National Forest near the Oregon border. Large cannabis grow sites on public lands appear to be most common in California; however, large grow sites also are found in many other states, including states that are not considered primary domestic marijuana production areas.

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The Appalachian states of Kentucky and Tennessee are a significant domestic marijuana source area. Combined, these two states accounted for close to 30 percent of outdoor cannabis plants eradicated under the DCE/SP program in 2001 (891,755 of 3,068,632) and 2002 (858,868 of 3,128,800). In both years eradication numbers for Tennessee surpassed those of Kentucky. Marijuana production is a chief concern in the more than 50 Appalachia HIDTA-designated counties in the two states. Some other areas of considerable cultivation specifically identified by the Appalachia HIDTA and state and local law enforcement agencies include Clay, Leslie, and Wayne Counties in Kentucky and Giles, Hardin, Lawrence, Lincoln, and Wayne Counties in Tennessee. Much of the cultivation in Appalachia occurs on public land. At one time the site of the highest cannabis eradication on NFS land, Kentucky's Daniel Boone National Forest has, in recent years, ranked second to Cleveland National Forest in California. Nonetheless, annual cannabis eradication for the Daniel Boone National Forest outstrips that of most states (over 100,000 plants in both 2001 and 2002). The forest covers land in 22 counties in Kentucky, 15 of which are HIDTA-designated.

Hawaii is a leading source of high potency marijuana, according to the DEA Los Angeles Division. Hawaii accounted for approximately 14 percent of outdoor cannabis plants eradicated nationwide in 2001 (435,475 of 3,068,632) and 14 percent in 2002 (435,475 of 3,128,800). The Hawaii HIDTA reports that cannabis is cultivated in each county, typically on the islands' eastern sides, but notes that most cultivation occurs in Hawaii County, which accounted for approximately 65 percent of the cannabis plants eradicated in the state in 2002. An estimated 90 percent of cannabis cultivation in Hawaii takes place on state-owned land except in Maui County, where estimates suggest that cultivation operations are split evenly between state and private land.

Eradication numbers for the Pacific Northwest states of Washington and Oregon, even combined, are considerably lower than for the other primary domestic source areas. Nonetheless, these states constitute a primary domestic source area because the quality of marijuana produced in the Pacific Northwest--from both outdoor and indoor cannabis cultivation--is high (see Highest Recorded THC Level). The DEA Seattle Field Division reports that indoor cultivation is widespread throughout the area, and DCE/SP reported eradicating more indoor plants (31,063) than outdoor plants (26,111) in Washington and Oregon in 2001. In 2002, however, DCE/SP eradicated 35,654 indoor cannabis plants compared with 54,963 outdoor plants. Contributing to the marked increase in outdoor eradication were several uncharacteristic seizures of multithousand-plant plots in 2002. DEA Seattle further notes that they are beginning to find large outdoor plots tended by Mexican cultivators in the area, although outdoor cannabis cultivation remains less prevalent than indoor cultivation. Much of the cultivation in the Pacific Northwest appears to be concentrated in western Washington and in southern Oregon. Reporting from the Northwest HIDTA and state and local law enforcement agencies indicates that Cowlitz, Grays Harbor, Kitsap, Klickitat, Snohomish, Spokane, and Yakima Counties in Washington and Jackson, Josephine, Klamath, and Umatilla Counties in Oregon are areas of considerable cultivation.

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The more clandestine nature of indoor cultivation compared with outdoor cultivation--no matter how remote the plot--makes assessing the magnitude of indoor cultivation difficult. Most DEA Field Divisions and HIDTAs report some level of indoor cultivation in their areas, and several report increases. Increasing indoor cultivation was noted in at least some of the areas covered by DEA Field Divisions in Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Seattle and by the Central Florida, Midwest, Nevada, New England, Rocky Mountain, and South Florida HIDTAs. Pulse Check sources reported the presence of indoor and outdoor cultivation about equally in 2002. In addition, NDTS 2003 data indicate that 73.1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide report the presence of indoor cultivation in their areas, similar to the percentage reporting outdoor cultivation (74.0%). These percentages are also similar to those reported in the 2002 survey for indoor (73.8%) and outdoor cultivation (74.7%).

Indoor-cultivated cannabis plants account for far less eradication under the DCE/SP, less than 10 percent in 2001 and 2002. While indoor cultivation occurs throughout the country, it is of particular concern in California, Washington, and Florida. These three states led indoor eradication in 2000 and 2001, accounting for more than half of nationwide indoor eradication in those years. California and Washington led again in 2002 with 59,099 and 22,649 indoor plants seized, respectively; however, indoor eradication in Texas (20,463) surpassed that in Florida (18,348) and numbers for Michigan (16,496) and Oregon (13,005) rose to near Florida's level.

As with marijuana users, producers are of wide-ranging age, both genders, and diverse origin or race. Producers of domestic marijuana typically are residents of the area in which the cultivation operations take place and, as such, usually reflect the demographic makeup of that area. In Appalachia, for example, many marijuana producers are longtime residents of the area, mostly Caucasians, who run family-based, vertical operations (controlling cultivation through distribution) or who deal with a broker as part of a loose confederation, or cooperative, with other marijuana producers. In Hawaii and the Pacific Northwest, most marijuana producers are local independent cultivators, typically Pacific Islanders and Caucasians, respectively. Many marijuana producers in California, particularly in the northern part of the state, are longtime residents who run family-based operations or deal with brokers as part of a confederation of local cultivators. In other areas of California, indoor marijuana producers generally are local independent cultivators, while members of or persons associated with Mexican DTOs often run large outdoor cultivation operations.

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Foreign Production

In addition to domestic marijuana, drug markets throughout the United States are supplied with significant quantities of foreign-produced marijuana, primarily from Mexico but also from Canada, Colombia, and Jamaica. Available data indicate that Mexico is the source of the vast majority of foreign-produced marijuana. Accepted interagency estimates indicate that net marijuana production for Mexico in 2002 was 7,900 metric tons, up from 7,400 in 2001. Production estimates for the other three countries, however, are not current. Canada is the source of considerable and increasing amounts of marijuana, typically high potency sinsemilla, available in U.S. drug markets; however, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) has estimated marijuana production in Canada at 800 metric tons annually since 1998. The INCSR has reported estimated marijuana production in Colombia at 4,150 metric tons since 1996, and the last marijuana production estimate reported in the INCSR for Jamaica was 214 metric tons in 1997.

In Mexico, much of the cannabis cultivation occurs along the western Sierra Madre Mountains in Chihuahua, Sinaloa, and Durango and farther south in Michoacán and Guerrero. The principal cultivation area in Canada is British Columbia, particularly the province's Lower Mainland; however, cultivation has been increasing markedly in Ontario and Québec. The traditional areas for cannabis cultivation in Colombia include the Sierra Nevada and Perijá Mountains, although cultivation likely occurs throughout the country. Cannabis typically is cultivated in remote mountainous or swampy areas throughout Jamaica.

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Transportation

The transportation of both foreign-produced and domestically produced marijuana occurs regularly and by many modes and routes. Given that two of the primary foreign sources, Mexico and Canada, share a land border with the United States, most smuggling of the drug into the country occurs overland. To a lesser extent, foreign-produced marijuana is smuggled via sea and air; these methods typically involve marijuana transported through the Caribbean and Atlantic, primarily from Colombia and Jamaica. Modes of transportation used to smuggle marijuana across U.S. borders include private vehicles, commercial trucks, mail services, trains, buses, tunnels, horses, and backpackers, as well as commercial and private vessels and aircraft. Transportation within the United States, including from domestic marijuana source areas, occurs mostly overland as well, primarily in commercial and private vehicles but also on trains and buses. Commercial and private aircraft and watercraft also are used, as are mail services, which often involve one or more of the transportation modes already mentioned.

Marijuana transporters are numerous and diverse. Mexican DTOs and criminal groups control marijuana smuggling from Mexico and, within the United States, they control transportation of the wholesale marijuana they produce both in Mexico and in this country. Canada-based OMGs and Asian criminal groups control much of the marijuana smuggling from Canada. Colombian DTOs control the transportation of bulk maritime shipments of marijuana from Colombia's coastal regions to the United States via the Caribbean; they also transport marijuana by maritime conveyances to Mexico for smuggling across the border into the United States. Jamaican criminal groups smuggle marijuana produced in Jamaica as well as that produced in Colombia. These organized groups also transport marijuana within the United States to varying extents and, at times, work together. Other transporters within the country include local independent growers and dealers, U.S.-based OMGs, street gangs, and criminal groups. Marijuana transporters range from teenagers to senior citizens, are males and females, and of diverse origin or race.

Seizure data indicate that most foreign-produced marijuana smuggled into the United States is transported overland across the U.S.-Mexico border, and interagency estimates suggest that most Mexico-produced marijuana is destined for the United States. But to what extent the marijuana smuggled across the border is produced in Mexico--or in other countries and transported through Mexico--cannot be conclusively determined, although most is likely Mexico-produced. What is known is that almost 98 percent of the marijuana seized at all land POEs in 2002 was seized at POEs along the U.S.-Mexico border and that more than 20 POEs along this border accounted for seizures of at least 1,000 kilograms (see Table 1.)

With 88,736 kilograms of marijuana seized in 2002, El Paso accounted for the most marijuana seized at any POE as it did in 2001 (104,257 kg), according to EPIC data. Laredo, the next most prolific POE in 2002, accounted for marijuana seizures of 38,692 kilograms, up from 32,380 kilograms in 2001. The POEs at San Ysidro, Otay Mesa, and Calexico in California followed the two Texas POEs; marijuana seizures at these California POEs generally have declined over the last few years. Amounts seized in 2002 were 36,176 kilograms at San Ysidro, 35,546 kilograms at Otay Mesa, and 16,477 kilograms at Calexico. Amounts seized at these POEs in 2001 were 59,073 kilograms, 53,303 kilograms, and 54,353 kilograms, respectively.

Table 1. POEs Along U.S.-Mexico Border With
Marijuana Seizures of 1,000+ Kilograms, 2002

Texas POEs El Paso:  88,736 kgs Laredo:  38,692 kgs Pharr:  3,716 kgs Brownsville:  3,701 kgs Hidalgo:  3,449 kgs Eagle Pass:  2,240 kgs Fabens:  2,041 kgs Del Rio:  1,557 kgs Fort Hancock:  1,138 kgs Presidio:  1,130 kgs California POEs San Ysidro: 36,176 kgs Otay Mesa: 35,546 kgs Calexico: 16,477 kgs Tecate: 9,724 kgs Arizona POEs Nogales: 9,342 kgs Douglas: 6,772 kgs Lukeville: 2,043 kgs San Luis: 1,702 kgs Naco: 1,111 kgs New Mexico POEs Santa Teresa: 5,887 kgs Columbus: 4,170 kgs Source: El Paso Intelligence Center.

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Marijuana smuggled across the U.S.-Mexico border, through POEs or between POEs, is transported throughout the United States. Some destinations for marijuana shipments smuggled through the El Paso and Laredo POEs consistently identified in 2002 EPIC data are Houston, Oklahoma City, San Antonio, Washington, D.C., the Atlanta area (including Decatur and Norcross), and smaller cities near Boston (including Lawrence, Lowell, Methuen, Wakefield, Worcester, and Providence). The San Ysidro, Otay Mesa, and Calexico POEs are all near San Diego. Areas consistently identified in EPIC data as destinations for marijuana shipments originating in San Diego in 2002 include Baltimore, central Florida (including Ocala, Orlando, and Tampa), the Newark-New York City area (including East Orange, Irvington, and Paterson), Philadelphia, and St. Louis. Primary market areas supplied with marijuana smuggled across the U.S.-Mexico border include Chicago, Dallas/Houston, Los Angeles/San Diego, Miami, New York, Phoenix/Tucson, and Seattle.

Seizure data clearly show that the smuggling of marijuana through POEs is significant. Of equal if not greater concern, however, is smuggling between POEs, particularly along the Texas-Mexico border. According to EPIC data, West Texas counties accounted for 27,204 and 19,193 kilograms of marijuana seized between POEs in 2001 and 2002, respectively. El Paso (13,640 kg and 7,967 kg) and Hudspeth Counties (10,465 kg and 7,511 kg) accounted for the highest seizure totals in West Texas in both years. South Texas counties accounted for 104,920 and 101,351 kilograms of marijuana seized between POEs in 2001 and 2002; Starr (30,994 kg and 32,007 kg) and Hidalgo Counties (28,059 kg and 20,325 kg) accounted for the most seizures between POEs of marijuana in South Texas in 2001 and 2002.

Areas along the Texas-Mexico border identified in law enforcement reporting as especially active include areas between El Paso and Fabens, at Big Bend National Park, and between Laredo and Brownsville. Smuggling across the Rio Grande is facilitated at these areas by highway access on both sides of the border and, in the case of Big Bend, the remoteness of large public lands. Both the USFS and U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) report that traffickers commonly use public lands adjacent to the U.S.-Mexico border, such as Big Bend (which also has been the site of several large outdoor cannabis plots) or the Coronado National Monument in Arizona, to smuggle marijuana into the United States. The DOI reports that marijuana is the illicit drug most frequently smuggled overland through federally managed lands from Mexico to the United States. Other drugs include cocaine, heroin, and methamphetamine.

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Marijuana also is smuggled into the United States overland across the U.S.-Canada border. Some estimates have suggested that over half the marijuana produced in British Columbia--notwithstanding that produced in Ontario, Quebec, and other provinces--is smuggled across the border, but there is no accepted interagency estimate as to exactly what percentage of Canada-produced marijuana is smuggled into the United States. The RCMP does report, however, that marijuana smuggling across the border is increasing. The Washington-British Columbia border remains the most active area for cross-border smuggling, but as cultivation has increased in eastern provinces, smuggling activities have intensified in the Great Lakes area, particularly in Michigan, and in New York and New England.

EPIC seizure data indicate that Washington and New York States accounted for most of the marijuana seized at POEs along the U.S.-Canada border in 2002. The Blaine POE in Washington has been the most prolific along the U.S.-Canada border regarding marijuana seizures and again led with 2,063 kilograms seized at the POE in 2002. In the entire Blaine area (including seizures at and between land POEs as well as maritime and air seizures) approximately 13,000 pounds of marijuana were seized in FY2002, according to the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). The Sumas POE, also in Washington, was second to Blaine for seizures at POEs, with 1,343 kilograms, and in New York, the Champlain POE accounted for the third highest total with 1,023 kilograms. Marijuana seizures at POEs also occurred at Alexandria Bay (NY), Sweetgrass (MT), Oroville and Lynden (WA), Highgate Springs and Derby Line (VT), and Detroit.

Marijuana smuggled into the United States across the U.S.-Canada border, through POEs or at various points between POEs, is transported to many areas of the country in addition to markets in border states. The DEA Seattle Field Division reports that BC Bud (a term commonly used to refer to sinsemilla produced in Canada) has transited its area en route to Kansas and South Dakota. The Division further notes that BC Bud is transported to California either to trade for cocaine or to sell, after which the proceeds are used to buy cocaine. The DEA Detroit Field Division reports a sharp increase in the amount of marijuana smuggled from Canada into Detroit. The DEA Field Division in Boston reports that marijuana smuggled from Montreal into Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont is further transported to Massachusetts, New York, and Virginia. Reporting from the Oregon HIDTA indicates that large quantities of BC Bud are transported to Multnomah County monthly, and the Rocky Mountain HIDTA reports that BC Bud is increasingly available in Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming. Primary market areas that have been supplied with marijuana smuggled across the U.S.-Canada border include Chicago, Los Angeles/San Diego, Miami, New York, Phoenix/Tucson, and Seattle.

Marijuana smuggled into the United States via maritime and air conveyances, primarily from Colombia and Jamaica, is seized at various points along the U.S. coastline and at many airports; however, the largest seizures consistently occur at Miami and New York. The POEs accounting for the largest amounts of marijuana seized from commercial vessels in 2002 were Miami (4,178 kg), Los Angeles (1,624 kg), and Charleston (1,451 kg), followed by two New Jersey ports at Gloucester City (1,434 kg) and Port Elizabeth (1,346 kg). Miami typically leads all ports in marijuana seized from commercial vessels; however, the amount seized in 2002 was down significantly from 2001 (17,996 kg). Commercial vessel marijuana seizures in Charleston have ranked third over the past few years. The POE accounting for the largest marijuana seizures from commercial air carriers in 2002 was New York, with 2,455 kilograms seized. Other marijuana seizure amounts from commercial air carriers in that year were significantly less, ranging from 40 kilograms to 107 kilograms total. Marijuana smuggled by maritime and air conveyances through and between POEs in the eastern United States supplies drug markets primarily in the eastern half of the country. Primary market areas supplied with marijuana smuggled into the eastern United States (including the Gulf Coast) typically include Houston, Miami, and New York.

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The proliferation of cannabis cultivation operations throughout the country equates to immeasurable amounts of marijuana supplying local markets; however, some marijuana produced in the United States is intended for transportation to markets farther from cultivation sites. Domestic source areas such as California, Appalachia, Hawaii, and the Pacific Northwest produce marijuana in amounts sufficient to supply markets for state, regional, and national distribution. Primary market areas supplied with domestic marijuana include Chicago, Dallas/Houston, Los Angeles/San Diego, Miami, New York, Phoenix/Tucson, and Seattle.

Traffickers primarily transport marijuana produced in California overland. Interstate 5 runs the length of California from Canada to Mexico through markets such as Seattle, Portland, and Los Angeles and connects with Interstates 80, 40, and 10 to facilitate eastward transportation. US 101 parallels I-5 and runs through Humboldt, Mendocino, and Trinity Counties--a high marijuana production area. According to the DEA San Francisco Field Division, US 101 is a principal route for transporting domestically produced marijuana. The Central California HIDTA reports that marijuana produced in California often is hidden in duffel bags and transported from cultivation sites at night by private vehicle. DEA San Francisco further identifies San Francisco International Airport as a transshipment point for the high-grade marijuana produced in northern California.

Some of the marijuana produced in Appalachia is transported to markets in states outside the area, primarily via private and commercial vehicles on the interstate system, although transportation via air cargo and mail services occurs as well. Main routes in Kentucky and Tennessee include Interstates 40, 75, and 65, which connect Appalachia to the southwestern United States and north to markets such as Cincinnati, Detroit, and Chicago. Hubs for several mail services are located at airports in Kentucky and Tennessee. Reporting from the Appalachia HIDTA and EPIC seizure statistics indicate that shipments of marijuana originating in either Kentucky or Tennessee have been seized in California, Illinois, Michigan, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington, D.C.

Airports and maritime ports are the focal points for drug transportation in Hawaii. The Honolulu Police Department estimates that 85 to 90 percent of all drug seizures occur at Honolulu International Airport through passenger and package interdiction. Honolulu is also the principal POE for maritime cargo shipped to and from Hawaii. Most cargo is transported through containerized shipping, and various cargo lines operate between Hawaii and the West Coast, primarily Los Angeles and San Francisco. According to the Hawaii HIDTA, local independent traffickers and, to a lesser extent, Mexican DTOs transport some of the marijuana produced in Hawaii to the U.S. mainland (primarily to or through California), Canada, and Mexico.

A principal route for transporting marijuana from the Pacific Northwest is I-5, which runs south through California as well as connects with Interstates 90 and 84 to facilitate eastward transportation. Reporting from law enforcement in Colorado, Montana, Utah, and Wyoming frequently identifies Washington (Seattle) and Oregon (Portland) as sources of high-grade marijuana seized in their areas, although much of this marijuana is believed to be en route to markets farther east.

Attempting to track the transportation of marijuana from source to market is, at best, difficult without benefit of an operational marijuana signature (source identification) program. For example, it is unlikely that all the marijuana seized at the U.S.-Mexico border is produced in Mexico, but currently there is no way to estimate the quantity of marijuana produced in other countries, such as Colombia, that is transported through Mexico. Likewise, marijuana listed in seizure data as originating in a domestic source area, such as California, is not necessarily produced there. Marijuana is transported via routes and cities not identified in this report, and quantities are distributed in cities and towns located en route to destinations that are identified.

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Distribution

Marijuana distribution is commonplace in cities and smaller towns and communities across the country, and the domestic marijuana market overall is strong and stable. Throughout the United States a wide range of organizations, groups, gangs, and independent dealers transport--and distribute--marijuana. Often the distinction between transporter and distributor is blurred. Many distributors travel from their home communities to primary markets, such as Houston and Phoenix, to markets on heavily trafficked routes, such as Kansas City and Oklahoma City, or to domestic sources such as California and Kentucky to purchase marijuana that they then transport to and distribute in their local areas.

Mexican DTOs and criminal groups control the transportation and wholesale distribution of most foreign-produced marijuana and the marijuana they produce in the United States; however, their influence becomes diluted at lower levels, where distributors typically reflect the demographic makeup of the local area. Domestic cannabis cultivators are the primary wholesale, midlevel, and retail distributors of the marijuana they produce. Other marijuana distributors include local independent dealers and organized groups such as street gangs and OMGs. NDTS 2003 data indicate that 32.9 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide report that the level of street gang involvement in marijuana distribution is high or moderate, while 14.1 percent report high or moderate involvement of OMGs. Marijuana distributors most often range in age from those in their teens to those in their fifties. Marijuana distributors are more often male than female, and they are of diverse origin or race.

Primary Market Areas

Primary market areas identified for marijuana include Chicago, Dallas/Houston, Los Angeles/San Diego, Miami, New York, Phoenix/Tucson, and Seattle. These were determined based on the role they play in the national-level distribution of wholesale marijuana. Examining these selected markets also helps illustrate the domestic distribution of marijuana from different source areas. Use was not considered in determining marijuana primary market areas for two reasons: marijuana use is common throughout the country and across many demographics, and marijuana is commonly used sequentially or concurrently with other illicit drugs, thus clouding analysis of the consequences of marijuana use alone. Dallas/Houston, Los Angeles/San Diego, and Phoenix/Tucson are combined because the geographic areas often share common drug points of entry, interconnected local drug markets, and drug distribution routes.

A significant market for marijuana distribution likely to emerge as a primary market area in the future is Atlanta. Denver is a significant market for the distribution of marijuana but on a lesser scale than Atlanta. North and South Carolina, collectively, appear to have been a more frequent destination for marijuana shipments over the past year; however, whether this pattern will continue and to what extent marijuana is distributed from this area is uncertain at this time.

Figure 11. Primary Market Areas: Marijuana

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Chicago. Most of the marijuana available in Chicago is smuggled from Mexico and transported via southwestern states. Transportation occurs primarily by tractor-trailers, private vehicles, and mail services and, in fact, the Chicago HIDTA reports an increase in marijuana seized from parcels originating in Mexico. In addition, Chicago-based distributors travel to the Southwest Border area to purchase marijuana at a lower price, returning to sell the marijuana in the Chicago market and realizing a higher profit. Approximately half the bulk marijuana transported to the Chicago area is believed to be destined for other markets, typically other cities in Illinois and in Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin including Indianapolis, Detroit, Minneapolis-St. Paul, Cincinnati, and Milwaukee. Conversely, local independent dealers from outlying markets travel to Chicago to purchase marijuana for sale in their home communities. Transportation from Chicago is usually by private vehicle, most likely via Interstates 55, 57, 65, 74, 80, and 94, and by mail services.

Mexican DTOs and criminal groups are the principal transporters to and wholesale distributors in Chicago; a representative of the organization or group usually will direct midlevel dealers to the appropriate warehouse in the Chicago area to pick up supplies. Street gangs, particularly Gangster Disciples, Vice Lords, and Latin Kings, are the principal retail distributors. Sales typically take place on the street or, less overtly, in alleys, stairwells, and private residences as well as from vehicles. Gangster Disciples and Vice Lords control distribution in the West and South Sides of Chicago where most open-air drug markets are located. Local independent dealers cultivate limited quantities of cannabis in the metropolitan area and distribute marijuana at the retail level as well. According to the Chicago HIDTA, Latin Kings also cultivates cannabis locally.

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Dallas/Houston. Most of the marijuana available in both cities is smuggled from Mexico by various methods, including tractor-trailers, private vehicles, aircraft, buses, trains, and mail services. Mexican DTOs and criminal groups often ship marijuana east to Dallas from Mexico via El Paso or from southern California. They also often use a northbound route from Mexico via McAllen, Pharr, and Laredo. This northbound route also facilitates marijuana transportation to Houston

Much of the marijuana transported to Dallas/Houston is destined for markets throughout the West Central, Great Lakes, and Northeast/Mid-Atlantic regions; however, transportation to markets in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida has become more frequent. Local independent dealers in these states often travel to Houston to purchase marijuana for resale in their home communities. Transportation from Dallas/Houston is primarily by vehicle, and frequently used routes are likely Interstates 10, 20, 30, 35, and US 59.

Mexican DTOs and criminal groups are also the primary marijuana wholesalers in Dallas/Houston. While Mexican criminal groups also distribute at the retail level in both cities, several other distributors are active, and no single group dominates. In Dallas, retail marijuana distributors include Hispanic street gangs such as Mara Salvatrucha and Latin Kings, African American gangs such as Rolling 60's Bloods and Hoover Crips, prison gangs such as Mexikanemi and Texas Syndicate, and local independent dealers. In Houston, street gangs--particularly Gangster Disciples, Latin Kings, and Vice Lords--prison gangs, and local independent dealers are active at the retail level. According to the DEA Dallas Field Division, there is considerable indoor cannabis cultivation in the Greater Dallas area, and the North Texas HIDTA reports the involvement of some Asian criminal groups in hydroponic cultivation operations in Dallas. Cannabis cultivation in Houston is ongoing but relatively limited.

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Los Angeles/San Diego. Mexican and domestic marijuana are readily available in both cities, although Mexican marijuana is probably the more prevalent type. Mexican DTOs and criminal groups continue to smuggle significant quantities of marijuana produced in Mexico across the border, primarily overland in vehicles with hidden compartments. Nonetheless, decreases in overall marijuana seizures in San Diego and Imperial Counties and in the number of incidents involving backpackers smuggling marijuana appear to be concurrent with reports of rising demand for higher potency domestic marijuana. Domestic marijuana is produced from outdoor and indoor cannabis cultivation operations in and around Los Angeles/San Diego such as in Los Angeles, San Diego, Riverside, and San Bernardino Counties and on NFS land. BC Bud also is available and is transported primarily overland from Canada via I-5.

Bulk marijuana shipments typically are delivered to stash locations where they are divided and repackaged for distribution or, in San Diego, temporarily stored before being transported to Los Angeles. Much of the marijuana transported to Los Angeles/San Diego from Mexico, and likely some of the local domestic marijuana, is destined for other drug markets. Marijuana shipments originating in Los Angeles are transported by vehicle, mail services, couriers on commercial flights, and air cargo. Frequent destinations of this marijuana include the New York City area, the Baltimore-Washington, D.C., area, and San Juan (PR), as well as markets in Florida, Georgia, Illinois, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. Marijuana shipments originating in San Diego appear to be transported most often by mail services, followed by overland vehicles and air carriers. Some frequent destinations of this marijuana include Baltimore, the Newark-New York City area, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and several cities in Florida. Likely overland routes include Interstates 8, 10, 15, and 40.

Mexican traffickers are the principal wholesale distributors of Mexico-produced marijuana in Los Angeles/San Diego; however, Jamaican traffickers also are active in transporting wholesale and midlevel marijuana from the area and, in Los Angeles, gangs sell marijuana at the wholesale level as well. In both cities Mexican and Caucasian cultivators are the primary producers of domestic marijuana outdoors, while indoor cultivation typically involves Caucasians. Asian traffickers are often the distributors of BC Bud. In Los Angeles, retail distributors include street gangs such as Bloods, Crips, 18th Street, and Mara Salvatrucha, as well as local independent dealers. In San Diego, retail distributors include local African American and Hispanic street gangs and local independent dealers. Local independent dealers in both cities also cultivate cannabis in small-scale operations.

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Miami. Marijuana produced in Jamaica and Mexico, as well as that produced domestically, is available in Miami. Jamaican and Bahamian criminal groups control most marijuana transportation to Miami via commercial maritime and air conveyances and, to a lesser extent, via private vessels. Mexico-produced marijuana is transported primarily overland in commercial and private vehicles, usually via Texas. Indoor cannabis cultivation in the Miami-Dade area has increased in recent years to such an extent that limited quantities of the high potency marijuana produced locally have been transported to Georgia, the Carolinas, and the Bahamas. Other destinations for marijuana transported from Miami include New York City, Alabama, Illinois, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Virginia as well as smaller markets throughout Florida. Transportation methods frequently used from Miami are mail services and private vehicles. Main routes from Miami include Interstates 75 and 95.

Various criminal groups, gangs, and local independent dealers, including those of Jamaican, Mexican, Caucasian, and African American origin, distribute marijuana at the wholesale and retail levels in Miami. Distributors of the foreign-produced marijuana available are primarily Hispanic and African American. Cuban American criminal groups and independent cultivators often run local indoor cultivation operations and distribute the marijuana they produce. Indoor cultivation operations in Miami are sometimes set up in gated communities and in homes rented specifically for that purpose.

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New York. Marijuana available in New York is transported from Mexico via southwestern states, from Jamaica and Colombia (often via Florida), from California, and from Canada. Transportation from all sources typically is by tractor-trailers, private vehicles, air and maritime conveyances, and mail services. The DEA New York Field Division reports, however, that parcel interdictions of marijuana have increased recently as have the number of incidents involving transportation by train and bus. Primary transporters of marijuana from the U.S.-Mexico border include Mexican and Jamaican traffickers; from Florida, Jamaican and Colombian traffickers; and from California and Canada, various criminal groups and independent dealers. Marijuana shipments originating in New York have been transported to Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Virginia as well as to smaller markets throughout the state. At the same time, some street gangs and local independent dealers travel to the city from markets upstate to purchase marijuana for distribution in their local areas. Main routes likely used to transport marijuana from New York include Interstates 78, 80, and 95.

Wholesale marijuana shipments transported to New York typically are delivered to stash locations, where they are divided and repackaged for midlevel and retail distribution. No single group dominates any distribution level. Jamaican criminal groups appear to be the most prominent; however, persons associated with traditional organized crime maintain a large share in marijuana trafficking in the city, and Mexican traffickers also play an active role in wholesale distribution. Jamaican criminal groups dominate midlevel distribution particularly in Manhattan and Brooklyn, areas identified as principal sources of marijuana in New York. Street gangs are the primary retail distributors particularly in Brooklyn (Bloods) and in New York City, Yonkers, and Nassau and Suffolk Counties (Latin Kings). Both in the city and in suburbs, local independent dealers, usually Caucasians, sell marijuana they produce locally or that they purchase on consignment from other dealers. OMGs distribute primarily in outlying areas.

Marijuana distribution in New York very often is associated with violence, and several shootings and homicides have been committed over distribution territories. Indoor and outdoor marijuana sales take place in apartments and small businesses, in parks and parking lots, and on street corners. Some local independent dealers operate call-and-deliver systems in certain areas.

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Phoenix/Tucson. Most of the marijuana available in both cities is smuggled from Mexico. Various quantities are smuggled into the United States in tractor-trailers and private vehicles, by horse and aircraft, and by backpackers. Much of the bulk marijuana seized along the Arizona-Mexico border is found as abandoned loads and cannot be linked to specific transportation modes or groups. Vehicles used to transport marijuana to Phoenix/Tucson often are driven from the border and left in parking lots where the marijuana is picked up or transferred to other vehicles, or they are driven to stash locations. Mexican and Jamaican DTOs and criminal groups are the principal marijuana transporters to Phoenix/Tucson. These traffickers also ship marijuana from the area; however, they also use Arizona-based groups who provide transportation services to large-scale traffickers. The availability of BC Bud is very limited. While some of this marijuana is transported to the area via the Pacific Northwest, some cultivators in Arizona market their domestically produced high potency marijuana as BC Bud.

Most of the marijuana transported to Phoenix/Tucson is destined for markets primarily in the West Central, Southeast, and Northeast/Mid-Atlantic regions. Marijuana shipments originating in Phoenix are transported primarily by vehicle but also by mail services, bus, and train. Frequent destinations include Chicago, Detroit, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Atlanta. Marijuana shipments originating in Tucson are transported primarily by vehicle and mail services. Frequent destinations include New York, Philadelphia, Miami, Washington, D.C., Ohio, Maryland, and New Jersey. Also, midlevel and retail marijuana distributors from across the state and country travel to Phoenix/Tucson to purchase supplies for distribution in their local areas or to arrange for transportation. Likely overland routes from Phoenix/Tucson include Interstates 8, 10, 17, and 40.

Mexican and Jamaican DTOs and criminal groups also are the principal wholesale distributors in both cities. Street gangs, such as Wetback Power Hispanic in Phoenix and Barrio Libre in Tucson, as well as local independent dealers control retail-level distribution. Cannabis is cultivated locally in Phoenix/Tucson but primarily for personal use only.

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Seattle. Most of the marijuana available in Seattle is locally produced; however, BC Bud and Mexican marijuana is transported to and available in the Seattle area as well. Asian criminal groups, OMGs and, to a lesser extent, local independent dealers smuggle marijuana from Canada by commercial and private vehicles, aircraft and watercraft, and backpackers. Mexican criminal groups smuggle marijuana from Mexico via California and Oregon. According to the DEA Seattle Field Division, most BC Bud transits Seattle en route to other markets. Marijuana identified as originating in Seattle has been destined for such wide-ranging locations as Alaska, Hawaii, California, Florida, Minnesota, and Washington, D.C. Transportation of marijuana from Seattle occurs primarily by vehicle, and Interstates 5 and 90 are the main routes from the city.

Locally produced marijuana and BC Bud are by far the preferred types distributed in Seattle because of their higher potency. Local independent dealers, usually Caucasians, are the primary cultivators and wholesale distributors of locally produced marijuana. Caucasians, organized groups and independent dealers, are the primary wholesalers of BC Bud. Retail distributors of both these types include Caucasian, Asian, and African American independent dealers as well as street gangs. Mexican criminal groups distribute wholesale and retail Mexican marijuana. Other retail distributors of this type include local independent dealers and street gangs. Retail sales take place among known connections, in open-air markets, and sometimes via home delivery.

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Key Developments

Texas POEs surpassed California POEs in marijuana seizures in 2002, reflecting a possible shift in either transportation routes or transportation methods used. The total weight seized at POEs in both states decreased between 2001 and 2002; however, between 2000 and 2002 the amount seized at California POEs decreased from 168,781 to 98,700 kilograms, while the amount seized at Texas POEs increased from 117,018 to 148,857 kilograms.

Maritime transportation of marijuana to the United States typically occurs via the Caribbean and Atlantic, and Miami and various ports along the East Coast usually record the highest amounts of marijuana seized from maritime conveyances, primarily commercial vessels. While this generally was the case again in 2002 (see Transportation), seizure data for that year also suggest that marijuana shipments were transported through the Gulf of Mexico more frequently than in the past. According to FDSS data, the South Atlantic/Caribbean accounted for most of the marijuana seized at sea in 2002 with approximately 42 percent. At less than half, however, this proportion is considerably lower than in previous years given that the South Atlantic/Caribbean accounted for approximately 80 to 95 percent of the marijuana seized at sea from 1999 to 2001. In comparison, seizures in the Gulf of Mexico in 2002 represented approximately 24 percent of the marijuana seized at sea in that year, up considerably from approximately 3 percent or less from 1999 to 2001.

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Projections

Marijuana will remain widely available and used in the United States, and the domestic market for marijuana will remain stable. Reporting from federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies, as well as investigation, arrest, and seizure data, indicates that overall availability is stable, and national-level substance abuse indicators suggest that current high levels of demand for the drug will not soon diminish. Furthermore, the transportation of marijuana from foreign and domestic sources and the subsequent distribution and sale of marijuana in U.S. drug markets are likely to continue with great regularity, fueled by both high demand and steady supplies.

Demand for high potency marijuana in particular also will continue, possibly fueling increased indoor cultivation. Such an increase is difficult to quantify because of the clandestine nature of indoor cultivation. Nonetheless, the rising prevalence of high potency marijuana and law enforcement reports of increased indoor cultivation in many areas of the United States are suggestive of increases in both the demand for and production of high potency marijuana. Some cultivators and distributors will fill demand for better quality marijuana by producing more--and more potent--marijuana. Some users, too, unwilling to pay a distributor, likely will begin cultivating on their own. A wealth of information on cannabis cultivation already exists in magazine articles, in books, and on Internet web sites that offer advice and techniques as well as advertise seeds for sale. In addition, starter plants, or cuttings, are being sold in some drug markets, a practice particularly noted in areas covered by the DEA Seattle Field Division.

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End Notes

15. The STRIDE data set contains information on the total cost, weight, and purity or potency of illicit drugs purchased as well as the date and location of the purchase.

16. The Potency Monitoring Project analyzes samples of marijuana seized by federal and state law enforcement agencies. The Project is funded by NIDA and is conducted at the University of Mississippi. 

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