Cocaine  

Introduction and Trends

The threat posed to the United States by the trafficking and abuse of cocaine is very high. Despite significant success in reducing worldwide cocaine production and increasing cocaine seizures, cocaine remains readily available throughout the country. Moreover, the demand for cocaine remains relatively high. In fact, National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) data indicate that more than 5.9 million persons aged 12 or older used cocaine within the past year in 2003.²

Although the threat posed by the trafficking and abuse of cocaine is high, the percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies that identify cocaine as the greatest drug threat in their areas has declined. According to National Drug Intelligence Center (NDIC) National Drug Threat Survey (NDTS) 2004 data, 35.6 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies report that cocaine (powder or crack) was the greatest drug threat to their areas, a decrease from 37.0 percent in 2003. In fact, the proportion of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide identifying cocaine as the greatest drug threat in 2004 was lower than the proportion identifying methamphetamine (39.6%) for the first time. Regionally, more state and local law enforcement agencies in the Southeast Region³ report that cocaine is the greatest drug threat in their areas (51.8%) than do agencies in the Northeast (38.5%), Midwest (37.3%), Southwest (23.8%), West (11.7%), and Pacific (3.1%) Regions.⁴

Cocaine trafficking and abuse often contribute to violent and property crime, a fact that contributes to the overall threat posed by the drug. According to NDTS 2004 data, 48.4 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies identify cocaine (powder or crack) as the drug that most contributes to violent crime in their areas, higher than any other drug including methamphetamine (34.2%). Moreover, a higher percentage of agencies (40.6%) identify cocaine as the drug that most contributes to property crime in their areas than identify any other drug including methamphetamine (32.7%).

The potential adverse effects of cocaine use are well-established but, among many individuals, attitudes regarding the risks attendant to cocaine use have relaxed. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), cocaine use may lead to psychological maladies such as irritability, restlessness, and paranoia as well as severe physical conditions including heart attacks, respiratory failure, bowel gangrene, and malnourishment. Nevertheless, the perceived risk associated with powder cocaine and crack use has declined overall among most measured age groups since the early 1990s. In fact, among some age groups the percentage of individuals perceiving great risk in using cocaine has decreased more than 10 percent. For example, Monitoring the Future (MTF) data show that the percentage of twelfth graders who perceive great risk in using cocaine occasionally has decreased from nearly 57.1 percent in 1992 to 46.2 percent in 2003.⁵

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Availability

Despite apparent sharp decreases in the amount of cocaine transported toward the United States from South America in 2003, key indicators of domestic cocaine availability show stable or slightly increased cocaine availability in drug markets throughout the country. According to the Interagency Assessment of Cocaine Movement (IACM), the estimated amount of cocaine successfully transported to the U.S. Arrival Zone decreased approximately 46 percent from 494 metric tons in 2002 to 265 metric tons in 2003. Nevertheless, Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and High Intensity Drug Trafficking Area (HIDTA) reporting indicate that cocaine remains readily available throughout the country and that availability increased slightly in some areas in 2003. No DEA Field Division or HIDTA office reports decreasing cocaine availability. State and local law enforcement agencies also indicate via the NDTS 2004 slightly increased cocaine availability overall in 2003. Moreover, DEA drug price data for 2003 indicate that wholesale cocaine prices have not increased or decreased beyond 2002 price ranges, and DEA cocaine purity data show that average wholesale cocaine purity in metropolitan areas increased 11.4 percent (70% pure to 78% pure) from 2001 through 2003.

NDIC Comment: There is little interagency consensus as to the reasons for the disparity in reporting with respect to apparent stable or increasing domestic cocaine availability despite reported decreases in cocaine production and transportation toward the United States. However, uncertainty in data such as coca cultivation, cocaine production, and domestic cocaine supply and consumption estimates likely accounts for much of the disparity. Another explanation for the disparity is a possible reduction in cocaine supplies to other world markets in order to sustain supplies in the United States; however, there are no conclusive data or reporting to support this assertion.

Demand

Rates of past year use for powder cocaine and crack have decreased among all adolescent age groups since 1999. According to MTF, rates of past year use for powder cocaine have trended downward from 1999 to 2004 among eighth (2.3% to 1.6%), tenth (4.4% to 3.3%), and twelfth graders (5.8% to 4.7%). Similarly, rates of past year use for crack have trended downward from 1999 to 2004 among eighth (1.8% to 1.3%), tenth (2.4% to 1.7%), and twelfth graders (2.7% to 2.3%).

NDIC Comment: Declines in past year use of cocaine and crack among adolescents appear to be primarily the result of decreased rates of use among adolescent males. According to MTF, from 1999 to 2003 rates of past year cocaine use (both powder and crack) declined more sharply among eighth (2.8% to 1.9%), tenth (5.2% to 3.3%), and twelfth grade males (7.3% to 5.9%) than among eighth (2.7% to 2.3%), tenth (4.6% to 3.2%), and twelfth grade females (5.0% to 3.7%).

Production

According to intelligence community estimates, potential worldwide cocaine production has decreased sharply since 2001, primarily because of decreased cocaine production in Colombia. According to interagency estimates, potential cocaine production in the Andean region of South America (Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru) accounts for virtually all worldwide cocaine production. Potential cocaine production (100% pure) in the Andean region decreased 27.2 percent from 900 metric tons in 2001 to 655 metric tons in 2003, primarily driven by a 34.3 percent decrease in potential cocaine production in Colombia from 700 metric tons in 2001 to 460 metric tons in 2003.

NDIC Comment: Sharp decreases in potential cocaine production in Colombia are due primarily to significant increases in aerial eradication of coca in that country, as well as improved timing of coca field spraying to increase overall effectiveness. According to U.S. Embassy reporting, aerial coca eradication in Colombia increased approximately 44.4 percent from approximately 90,000 hectares in 2001 to 130,000 hectares in 2003. Moreover, expanded coca aerial eradication in Colombia has forced many coca farmers to harvest leaves early, resulting in lower coca leaf yields per coca field in areas of sustained aerial eradication.

Transportation

The percentage of cocaine seized along the Texas-Mexico border relative to all Southwest Border cocaine seizures increased sharply from 2001 to 2002 and remained stable in 2003. According to seizure data from the DEA El Paso Intelligence Center (EPIC), of the cocaine seized at ports of entry (POEs), between POEs, or at checkpoints along the Southwest Border, the percentage seized in Texas increased from 62.9 percent (12,782 of 20,309 kg) in 2001 to 71.8 percent (16,244 of 22,628 kg) in 2002, and remained stable at 71.4 percent (11,365 of 15,924 kg) in 2003.

NDIC Comment: The increased proportion of cocaine seized in Texas relative to all cocaine seized along the Southwest Border likely reflects an increase in the amount of cocaine smuggled through Texas en route to drug markets in the eastern United States. According to interagency estimates, the amount of cocaine transported from South America via the Caribbean for distribution in U.S. drug markets in the eastern half of the country deceased 9 percent, from 31 percent in 2001 to 22 percent in 2003. Moreover, since 2001 law enforcement agencies in New York and New Jersey have reported a significant increase in the amount of cocaine supplied to their areas by Mexican criminal groups transporting the drug from the Southwest Border, particularly Texas.

Distribution

Houston has emerged as a leading cocaine distribution center in the United States. According to EPIC seizure data for 2002 and 2003, more cocaine was seized on domestic highways, railways, and at airports that came from Houston (1,361 kg) than was seized coming from any other city, including Los Angeles (1,073 kg), Atlanta (682 kg), or Phoenix (504 kg). Moreover, cocaine seizure data show that wholesale quantities of cocaine are distributed from Houston to numerous significant drug markets in most regions of the country including Atlanta, Chicago, and New York.

NDIC Comment: Houston's emergence as potentially the largest cocaine distribution center in the United States likely reflects the increased role of Texas as a transit area for cocaine destined for drug markets, particularly in the eastern United States. As previously stated, drug seizure data, intelligence reporting, and interagency cocaine flow estimates strongly indicate that cocaine smuggling through and between POEs in Texas has increased significantly relative to other Arrival Zone areas since 2001. The emergence of Houston as a leading distribution center for cocaine is consistent with that trend.

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Availability

There are no conclusive estimates as to the total amount of cocaine available in the United States because of significant data limitations particularly with respect to production estimates, as well as seizures and consumption of the drug. However, in attempting to quantify the amount of cocaine available in the United States, the interagency Cocaine Availability Working Group estimated that approximately 255 metric tons of cocaine (100% pure) were available in 2002--a decrease from 263 metric tons of cocaine in 2001, but higher than the estimated 252 metric tons available in 2000. This estimate is derived from analysis of limited data and, as such, has a high degree of uncertainty.

Despite fluctuations in interagency estimates regarding the amount of cocaine available to domestic drug markets, law enforcement reporting and drug survey data regarding availability strongly indicate that both powder cocaine and crack were present and available in more areas in 2004 than they had been previously. Nevertheless, the increased detection of powder cocaine and crack in more areas of the country is not necessarily an indication of an increase in the total quantity of cocaine available in domestic drug markets. Rather, the increased presence of powder cocaine and crack likely is due to an increase in the number of retail drug distributors in rural and suburban areas who sell multiple drug types including powder cocaine and crack.

Law enforcement reporting indicates that powder cocaine is readily available throughout the country. In fact, every DEA Field Division and HIDTA office reports that powder cocaine is readily or widely available in its area. Most DEA Field Divisions and HIDTA offices indicate that powder cocaine availability is stable; however, two Field Divisions--Phoenix and Seattle--and two HIDTAs--New England and Oregon--report that powder cocaine availability is increasing.

Crack, converted from powder cocaine in drug markets throughout the country, is readily available in metropolitan areas as well as in many suburban and rural areas. All DEA Field Divisions and HIDTA offices report that crack is readily or widely available in their areas, particularly in metropolitan areas, and many indicate that crack is becoming more present and available in rural areas. For example, seven Field Divisions (Boston, Caribbean, New York, Philadelphia, Seattle, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.) indicate that crack availability is increasing in smaller communities. Moreover, five HIDTAs (Appalachia, Arizona, Central Florida, Milwaukee, and Oregon) report that crack availability has increased in their areas, particularly in rural areas.

NDTS data indicate that powder cocaine availability has increased since 2002. NDTS data show that the percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reporting that powder cocaine availability was high or moderate in their areas increased from 76.2 percent in 2002, to 81.7 percent in 2003, and 82.0 percent in 2004. NDTS 2004 data further indicate that the proportion of state and local law enforcement agencies reporting that powder cocaine availability was low in their areas decreased from 21.6 percent in 2002, to 16.4 percent in 2003, and 16.0 percent in 2004. The proportion of agencies that report powder cocaine was not available in their areas decreased slightly from 0.5 percent in 2003 to 0.4 percent in 2004, the only years for which such data are available.

NDTS data indicate that crack has become more available over the past 3 years. NDTS data indicate that the percentage of state and local law enforcement agencies nationwide reporting crack availability as high or moderate in their areas increased from 67.1 percent in 2002, to 75.0 percent in 2003, and 77.4 percent in 2004. The proportion of agencies that report crack availability as low in their areas decreased each of the past 3 years from 27.2 percent in 2002, to 21.9 percent in 2003, and 19.2 percent in 2004. The proportion of agencies that report that crack was not available in their areas increased slightly from 1.7 percent in 2003 to 2.0 percent in 2004, the only years for which such data are available.

Federal-wide Drug Seizure System (FDSS) data indicate that federal cocaine seizures increased sharply in 2003 after successive decreases each year since 1999; however, this increase in the amount of cocaine seized is not an indication of an increase in the amount of cocaine available nationally.⁶ According to FDSS data, the amount of cocaine seized through incidents involving federal agencies decreased steadily from 1999 through 2002 but then increased significantly in 2003 (see Figure 6). The recent increase in federal cocaine seizures appears to be driven by an increase in at-sea maritime cocaine seizures from 2002 (52,414 kg) to 2003 (62,303 kg), which were principally the result of improved maritime interdiction techniques.

Figure 6. Federal-wide drug seizures, cocaine, in kilograms, 1999-2003.

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Source: Federal-Wide Drug Seizure System.

The number of arrests made by DEA for cocaine-related offenses (both powder and crack) has decreased steadily since 2001; however, this decrease is not a strong indication of decreased cocaine availability but rather a reflection of a change in DEA investigation strategy to target fewer but higher-priority individuals. According to DEA, cocaine-related arrests declined 22.1 percent overall from 12,994 in 2001, to 11,838 in 2002, and 10,120 in 2003.

Cocaine purity appears to have increased significantly from 2001 to 2003, an indication of strong availability of the drug. According to DEA, the average wholesale (kilogram quantities) purity of cocaine in sampled metropolitan areas--Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and Washington, D.C.--increased from 68 percent in 2001, to 70 percent in 2002, and 78 percent in 2003. The average midlevel (ounce quantities) purity for cocaine also increased sharply from 50 to 55 to 60 percent, respectively, over that same period. Retail (gram quantities) purity for cocaine increased from 59 percent in 2001, to 62 percent in 2002, and 66 percent in 2003.

Average national prices for cocaine are not available, thereby limiting precise analysis of cocaine price trends. However, DEA illicit drug price data (reported as a price range) for the metropolitan areas of Chicago, Dallas, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and Washington, D.C., indicate that cocaine prices have not changed significantly from 2001 through 2003. DEA drug price data show that the price range for cocaine in metropolitan areas has fluctuated only slightly from $12,500 to $35,000 per kilogram in 2001, to $13,000 to $35,000 per kilogram in 2002, and $13,000 to $30,000 per kilogram in 2003. The price range for midlevel quantities of cocaine has remained stable since 2001 for the low end of the range but has fluctuated for the high end--prices ranged from $400 to $1,550 per ounce in 2001, $400 to $2,000 per ounce in 2002, and $400 to $1,300 per ounce in 2003. Cocaine prices in metropolitan areas at the retail level have changed only slightly since 2001--prices ranged from $20 to $100 per gram in both 2001 and 2002 and from $25 to $110 per gram in 2003.

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Demand

The demand for cocaine is high relative to most other illicit drugs. According to 2003 NSDUH data, the rate of past year use for cocaine (both powder and crack) among persons aged 12 or older (2.5%) is second only to marijuana (10.6%) and is much higher than the rates of past year use for MDMA (0.9%), heroin (0.1%), and methamphetamine (0.6%).

National drug prevalence data indicate that the rate of cocaine use is highest among younger adults. According to 2003 NSDUH data, the rates of past year use for cocaine (both powder and crack) were much higher among persons aged 18 to 25 (6.6%) than among those aged 12 to 17 (1.8%) or 26 or older (1.9%). MTF 2003 data also show higher rates of past year use for cocaine among young adults aged 19 to 28 (6.6%) than for other user groups including eighth (2.2%), tenth (3.3%), and twelfth graders (4.8%) as well as college students aged 19 to 22 (5.4%).

Males are more likely to use cocaine than are females for most age groups. According to 2003 NSDUH data, rates of past year use for cocaine (both powder and crack) among persons aged 12 or older are usually higher among males (3.4%) than among females (1.6%). MTF 2003 data show rates of past year use for cocaine (both powder and crack) is lower among male (1.9%) than female (2.3%) eighth graders. However, among all other age groups, rates of past year use for cocaine are higher among males than females. Rates of past year use for cocaine among tenth and twelfth grade males in 2003 were 3.3 and 5.9 percent, respectively, compared with tenth (3.2%) and twelfth grade females (3.7%). MTF data also show rates of past year use for cocaine are higher among males (8.2%) aged 19 to 30 than among females (5.0%).

Drug prevalence data do not indicate a significant difference in the rates of past year use for cocaine among different ethnic groups. NSDUH 2003 data show that rates of past year use for cocaine (both powder and crack) among persons aged 12 or older were slightly higher among Hispanics (3.0%) than among Blacks (2.4%) or Whites (2.5%). MTF 2003 ethnicity data--available only for eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders--are mixed. MTF data show that rates of past year use for cocaine (both powder and crack) among White students were 2.2, 3.9, and 5.6 percent among eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders, respectively, compared with Hispanic eighth (3.8%), tenth (6.1%), and twelfth graders (4.9%) and Black eighth (0.9%), tenth (0.9%), and twelfth graders (1.1%).

The proportion of individuals in large metropolitan areas who use cocaine appears to be much larger than the proportion of individuals in rural areas who use cocaine. NSDUH 2003 data show that past year rates of use for cocaine (both powder and crack) among persons aged 12 or older is much higher among those in Large Metropolitan areas (2.7%) than among those in Completely Rural areas (0.9%). MTF 2003 data show that past year use of cocaine (both powder and crack) among adults aged 19 to 30 is much higher among those in a Very Large City (7.7%) than in Farm/Country areas (4.4%). Comparative data for students show lower use in more populated areas. According to MTF 2003 data, 1.7, 2.5, and 3.8 percent of eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders in Large MSAs (Metropolitan Statistical Areas) report past year cocaine use compared with 2.7, 4.6, and 4.6 percent in Non-MSAs.

Cocaine use among adults appears to be trending upward overall. MTF 2003 data show that rates of past year use for powder cocaine among young adults aged 19 to 28 and college students aged 19 to 22 have trended upward from 2000 through 2003, although none of the changes were statistically significant (see Figure 7). According to MTF data, past year use of crack has been relatively stable since 2000; however, the most recent increase in the rate of crack use among college students was statistically significant. Only 2 years of NSDUH data are available and, therefore, the data are not sufficient to show definitive trends. Nevertheless, NSDUH data indicate that rates of past year powder cocaine and crack use were relatively stable from 2002 to 2003 for adults aged 18 to 25 and 26 or older.

Figure 7. Adult trends in percentage of past year use of powder cocaine and crack cocaine, 2000-2003.

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Source: Monitoring the Future; National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

Among adolescents, rates of past year use for both powder cocaine and crack appear to have trended downward overall since 1999. MTF 2004 data show steady declines in rates of past year use for powder cocaine among eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders since relatively high rates of use in 1999, although none of the annual decreases were statistically significant (see Figure 8). MTF data show rates of past year use for crack also have declined overall among eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders since 1999. Only 2002 and 2003 NSDUH data are available and, therefore, the data are not sufficient to show definitive trends. Nevertheless, NSDUH data show that the rates of past year use for powder cocaine and crack were relatively stable from 2002 to 2003 for adolescents aged 12 to 17.

Figure 8. Adolescent trends in percentage of past year use of powder cocaine and crack cocaine, 1999-2004.

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Source: Monitoring the Future; National Survey on Drug Use and Health.

MTF data regarding the perceived harmfulness of cocaine use often fluctuate; however, when analyzed over the period since 1992, it appears that the perceived risk in using cocaine and crack has decreased overall among adolescents and younger adults but increased among older adults (see Figure 9). Data from the Partnership Attitude Tracking Study (PATS) also show a slight decrease in the percentage of teens that perceive harm in using cocaine (see Figure 10).⁷ MTF data regarding the disapproval of people using powder cocaine and crack show a decrease in disapproval by adolescents and younger adults and an increase in disapproval among older adults since 1992 (see Figure 11).

Figure 9. Trends in perceived harmfulness of cocaine, selected groups, 1992-2004.

Percentage saying there is a "great risk" in people trying
powder cocaine once or twice


Percentage saying there is "great risk" in people 
trying crack once or twice

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Source: Monitoring the Future.

Figure 10. Trends in perceived harmfulness of cocaine, teens, 1995-2003.

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Source: Partnership Attitude Tracking Study.

Figure 11. Trends in disapproval of cocaine use, 1992-2004.

Percentage of who "disapprove" or "strongly disapprove"
of people trying powder cocaine once or twice.


Percentage of who "disapprove" or "strongly disapprove"
of people trying crack cocaine once or twice.

Percentage of who "disapprove" or "strongly disapprove"
of people trying cocaine (powder or crack) once or twice.

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Source: Monitoring the Future.

Data from the Drug Abuse Warning Network (DAWN) and Treatment Episode Data Set (TEDS) show opposing trends in the consequences of cocaine use since 1995.⁸ According to DAWN data, the estimated number of cocaine-related emergency department (ED) mentions increased sharply from 135,711 in 1995 to 199,198 in 2002 (see Figure 12).

Figure 12. Cocaine-related emergency department mentions, estimated number, 1995-2002.

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Source: Drug Abuse Warning Network.

Similarly, DAWN data show a sharp increase in the rate of cocaine-related ED mentions from 58 per 100,000 population in 1995 to 78 per 100,000 population in 2002. However, TEDS data show that the number of treatment admissions for cocaine (smoked and nonsmoked) at publicly funded drug treatment facilities decreased during the same period from 272,386 in 1995 to 241,699 in 2002--the only drug type to show a decrease during that period (see Figure 13).

Figure 13. Cocaine-related admissions to publicly funded treatment facilities, number, 1995-2002.

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Source: Treatment Episode Data Set.

Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) program data for 2003 indicate that the median percentage of adult males testing positive for cocaine (30.1%) was second only to marijuana (44.1%) and was much higher than heroin (5.8%) and methamphetamine (4.7%).⁹ ADAM data also show that the median percentage of adult males reporting past year use was 13.6 percent for powder cocaine and 17.2 percent for crack.

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Production

Virtually all cocaine available in worldwide drug markets is produced in the Andean region of South America, particularly in Colombia and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia and Peru. A very small amount of cocaine also is produced in Venezuela, Ecuador, Panama, and Brazil. Coca is cultivated by numerous independent growers who harvest coca leaves and either process the coca leaves into cocaine base in small, often remote laboratories or sell the leaves to a cocaine base-processing group. Cocaine base is then sold to processors who convert the base into finished powder cocaine (cocaine hydrochloride).

Law enforcement and intelligence estimates indicate that combined coca cultivation and cocaine production in Colombia, Bolivia, and Peru decreased sharply in 2003 to the lowest recorded level since 1986. According to interagency estimates, coca cultivation in the Andean region declined 22 percent from 2001 to 2003, and estimated cocaine production (100% pure) decreased 27 percent during that same period (see Table 3).

Table 3. Andean Region Coca Cultivation and Potential Cocaine Production, 1999-2003

Source: Crime and Narcotics Center.
* Unprecedented levels of eradication have introduced an element of uncertainty to these estimates.

Coca cultivation and cocaine production have decreased sharply in Colombia since peaking in 2001; however, cultivation and production levels remain higher in Colombia than in any other country. According to intelligence reporting, interagency estimates indicate that coca cultivation in Colombia decreased 33.0 percent from 2001 to 2003--169,800 hectares to 113,850 hectares. Similarly, estimated cocaine production (100% pure) in Colombia decreased 34.3 percent from 2001 to 2003 (700 mt to 460 mt). Despite decreased production in Colombia, intelligence reporting indicates that approximately 65.6 percent of all coca in the Andean region is cultivated in Colombia and that approximately 70.2 percent of the cocaine produced in the Andean region is produced in Colombia.

In Peru coca cultivation and cocaine production have fluctuated since 2001 but have decreased overall. Intelligence reporting indicates that coca cultivation in Peru increased from 2001 to 2002 (34,000 ha to 36,600 ha) but decreased significantly in 2003 (31,150 ha). Cocaine production in Peru increased from 140 metric tons (100% pure) in 2001 to 155 metric tons in 2002 before declining sharply to 135 metric tons in 2003. According to interagency estimates, cocaine production in Peru accounts for approximately 20.6 percent of the cocaine produced in the Andean region. Much of the cocaine produced in Peru is destined for Brazil and other Latin America drug markets.

Coca cultivation in Bolivia has increased significantly since 2001, but cocaine production has remained stable because of a lag in maturation of newly planted coca. Interagency estimates show that the number of hectares under cultivation for coca has increased from 19,900 in 2001, to 24,400 in 2002, and 28,450 in 2003. Despite increased coca cultivation in Bolivia, potential cocaine production has remained unchanged at 60 metric tons (100% pure) annually from 2001 through 2003. However, if cultivation continues to expand and newly planted coca plants currently under cultivation mature, potential cocaine production in Bolivia may increase significantly. Nevertheless, current cocaine production estimates indicate that cocaine produced in Bolivia accounts for only 9.2 percent of the total produced in the Andean region.

The crack cocaine available in U.S. drug markets typically is converted from powder cocaine predominantly by African American and Hispanic gang members who set up their conversion operations usually in private residences near retail distribution sites in metropolitan areas.¹⁰ In fact, NDTS 2004 data show that 89.1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies in larger cities (agencies with 75 or more full-time officers) report crack conversion in their areas compared with 68.7 percent of all state and local law enforcement agencies. Regionally, a much higher percentage of agencies in the Southeast Region (88.8%) report crack conversion in their areas than do agencies in the Northeast (66.5%), Southwest (65.7%), Midwest (64.7%), West (47.9%), or Pacific Regions (45.8%).

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Transportation

Much of the cocaine produced in Colombia and Peru is bound for the United States; however, the total amount of cocaine destined for U.S. drug markets decreased sharply in 2003. Of the 612 metric tons of export-quality cocaine detected departing South America for worldwide drug markets, approximately 422 metric tons (69.0%) departed South America moving toward the United States while only 190 metric tons (31.0%) were destined for non-U.S. markets. IACM data further indicate that the amount of export-quality cocaine detected departing South America and moving toward the United States decreased 20.6 percent from approximately 532 metric tons in 2002.

The amount of cocaine lost or seized while in transit toward the United States increased sharply in 2003, leaving significantly less cocaine available to U.S. drug markets. According to IACM, 157 metric tons of cocaine were seized while in transit toward the United States, up from 138 metric tons in 2002. Cocaine seizures within the U.S. Arrival Zone remained stable at 32 metric tons in 2002 and 2003. Combined transit and Arrival Zone cocaine seizures increased approximately 11.2 percent from 170 metric tons in 2002 to 189 metric tons in 2003. IACM data indicate that the total amount of cocaine available to U.S. drug markets decreased from approximately 362 metric tons in 2002 to approximately 233 metric tons in 2003 (see Table 4).

Table 4. Cocaine Losses in Transit Toward the United States, in Metric Tons, 2002-2003

Source: Interagency Assessment of Cocaine Movement, 2003.
* Unprecedented levels of eradication have introduced an element of uncertainty to these estimates.

Cocaine is transported from South America to the United States via the Mexico-Central America corridor and, to a lesser extent, via the Caribbean corridor. According to IACM, in 2003, 77 percent of the cocaine detected moving toward the United States likely was transported through the Mexico-Central America corridor, and 22 percent was transported through the Caribbean corridor. Only 1 percent of the cocaine was transported from South America directly to the continental United States (see Figure 14). Moreover, preliminary data show that the percentage of cocaine detected moving toward the United States through the Mexico-Central America corridor may have been higher than 90 percent in 2004.

Figure 14. Cocaine flows to the United States.

Source: Interagency Assessment of Cocaine Movement, 2003.

Regardless of which transportation corridor cocaine transits en route to the United States, most cocaine initially is transported in noncommercial vessels. According to IACM, in 2003 approximately 90 percent of the cocaine detected departing South America and moving toward the United States in was transported in noncommercial maritime conveyances, particularly go-fast boats. Cocaine transporters in the eastern Pacific continue to frequently transport cocaine from South America aboard fishing vessels that rendezvous with smaller vessels that transport the cocaine to Mexico (see text box).

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Mexico-Central America Corridor

Most cocaine available in the United States is transported from South America to Mexico by maritime and, to a lesser extent, air conveyances and then smuggled across the Southwest Border. According to IACM, 37 percent of the cocaine bound for the United States from South America initially is transported to Mexico via the eastern Pacific. Similarly, 37 percent of the cocaine available in the United States initially is transported from South America to Mexico via the western Caribbean. An additional 3 percent of the cocaine bound for the United States initially is transported from South America to Mexico, although the route to Mexico--eastern Pacific or western Caribbean--is unknown.

Once in Mexico, cocaine is transported to the Southwest Border by Mexican drug trafficking organizations (DTOs) and criminal groups and subsequently smuggled into the United States through or between Southwest Border POEs, particularly Texas POEs. EPIC seizure data for 2003 show that of the 12,591 kilograms of cocaine seized at or between Southwest Border POEs or at Southwest Border inland checkpoints, 8,707 kilograms (69.1%) were seized in Texas. Significantly less cocaine was seized at POEs, between POEs, or at inland checkpoints in California (2,005 kg), Arizona (1,515 kg), and New Mexico (364 kg).

Seizure data suggest that most cocaine smuggled into the United States via the Mexico-Central America corridor is smuggled through one of eight principal land POEs. Combined EPIC seizure data for 2002 and 2003 show that most cocaine is seized at land POEs at El Paso (2,613 kg) and Laredo (TX) (2,271 kg); Nogales (AZ) (1,835 kg); Calexico (CA) (1,546 kg); Pharr (TX) (1,420 kg); San Ysidro (CA) (1,351 kg); Del Rio (TX) (1,255 kg); and Hidalgo (TX) (1,012 kg).

A significant amount of cocaine also is smuggled between Southwest Border POEs, particularly in Texas; however, there are relatively few seizures because of the great difficulty in monitoring the vast, remote areas between POEs. EPIC cocaine seizure data indicate that 21 combined seizure events between Southwest Border POEs in 2002 and 2003 totaled 799 kilograms, representing only 2.0 percent of the cocaine seized along the Southwest Border during that period. Of the 799 kilograms of cocaine seized between POEs along the Southwest Border, 392 kilograms (49.1%) were seized between POEs in Texas--more than in Arizona (279 kg), California (68 kg), or New Mexico (59 kg).

Cocaine is transported from the Southwest Border, particularly through the principal cocaine POEs, to cocaine Primary Market Areas throughout the country.

Caribbean Corridor

Approximately 22 percent of the cocaine available in the United States is transported from South America through the Caribbean to maritime POEs in the United States, particularly in southeastern states. According to IACM, of the cocaine shipments that were detected departing South America moving toward the United States via the Caribbean, most departed South America on vectors that indicated transit via either Jamaica (7% of the 22%) or Haiti/Dominican Republic (7% of the 22%). Cocaine shipments also were detected moving toward the United States on vectors that indicated transit via Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands (4% of the 22%) and Aruba/Lesser Antilles (3% of the 22%). An additional 1 percent of cocaine shipments were detected moving toward the United States via the Caribbean, although the areas through which the cocaine transited were undetermined.

Most of the cocaine that is transported to the United States via the Caribbean corridor is smuggled into the country through maritime POEs in southeastern states, particularly maritime POEs in Florida. According to EPIC seizure data, of 8,665 kilograms of cocaine seized from commercial vessels at POEs in 2002 and 2003, approximately 85.5 percent (7,408 kg) was seized at POEs in southeastern states. Moreover, approximately 79.6 percent (6,903 kg of 8,665 kg) of the cocaine seized from commercial vessels at maritime POEs was seized at POEs in Florida.

The principal POEs for cocaine transported to the continental United States via the Caribbean corridor include Miami, Fort Lauderdale and, to a lesser extent, New Orleans, although cocaine is smuggled into several other maritime POEs as well. EPIC seizure data for 2002 and 2003 show that a much greater amount of cocaine was seized from commercial vessels at the Miami (4,690 kg) and Fort Lauderdale (1,879 kg) POEs than at any other POE. A significant amount of cocaine (352 kg) also was seized from commercial vessels at the New Orleans POE in 2002 and 2003. Cocaine is seized from commercial vessels that transited the Caribbean corridor at other maritime POEs such as Galveston, Houston, Key West, Philadelphia, Savannah, Tampa, and particularly at POEs in New York and New Jersey. Cocaine seizures from commercial vessels at maritime POEs in New York and New Jersey totaled 615 kilograms in 2002 and 2003.

Cocaine is transported primarily by private and commercial vehicles through the Miami, Fort Lauderdale, and New Orleans POEs to cocaine Primary Market Areas in the eastern half of the country.

Direct to the Continental United States

Relatively little cocaine is smuggled from South America directly to maritime and air POEs in the continental United States. According to IACM, only 1 percent of the cocaine detected departing South America toward the United States is transported directly to the continental United States via commercial vessels, mail services, or passengers on commercial flights.

In the United States

Powder cocaine is transported within the United States primarily in private and commercial vehicles but also via mail services and by couriers on commercial flights, buses, and trains. According to EPIC seizure data for 2002 and 2003, law enforcement agencies reported 1,293 cocaine seizure events from private vehicles totaling 14,324 kilograms. Law enforcement agencies report 87 seizure events from commercial vehicles totaling 6,497 kilograms during the same period. EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show 427 combined seizure events reported by law enforcement agencies from mail facilities, commercial airports, bus terminals, and train stations; however, the total amount of cocaine seized (4,065 kg) is significantly less than seizures from private and commercial vehicles.

Crack typically is not transported over long distances because of harsher legal penalties associated with crack possession; however, law enforcement agencies occasionally seize crack from private and commercial vehicles as well as from mail facilities and couriers at domestic airports, bus terminals, and train stations. Combined EPIC seizure data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement agencies reported 192 crack seizure events totaling 54 kilograms from private and commercial vehicles, mail facilities, and couriers at domestic airports, bus terminals, and train stations.

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Distribution

Powder cocaine and crack are distributed in every region of the country and the market for the drugs is strong; however, whereas powder cocaine is distributed widely in most areas, crack distribution occurs primarily in metropolitan areas. Every DEA Field Division and HIDTA office reports that powder cocaine is distributed widely throughout its area and that crack is distributed widely in urban areas. However, seven DEA Field Divisions (New England, Caribbean, New York, Philadelphia, Seattle, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.) and five HIDTA offices (Appalachia, Central Valley, Milwaukee, Oregon, and Arizona) report that crack distribution is increasing in their areas, particularly in smaller communities and rural areas.

Mexican, Colombian and, to a lesser extent, Dominican criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in the United States, although other groups also distribute significant wholesale amounts of cocaine. DEA and HIDTA reporting indicate that Mexican criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in the Pacific, Southwest, and West Regions and in most areas of the Midwest and Southeast Regions of the country. Colombian criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in the Northeast Region. Colombian criminal groups also control most wholesale cocaine distribution in Miami and San Juan (PR), and they control some wholesale cocaine distribution in Houston, Dallas, Los Angeles, and New Orleans. Dominican wholesale cocaine distributors are very prominent in the Northeast Region and, according to law enforcement reporting, control most wholesale cocaine distribution in Philadelphia and Washington, D.C. Dominican criminal groups also control much of the wholesale cocaine distribution in cities outside the Northeast Region including Atlanta, Cleveland, Detroit, Houston, Milwaukee, and San Juan. Other criminal groups such as Jamaican, Haitian, and Puerto Rican criminal groups control some wholesale distribution in large cities, particularly in the Southeast Region, while independent, often Caucasian, cocaine wholesale distributors supply midlevel distributors in most areas.

Mexican, Dominican and, to a lesser extent, Colombian criminal groups control much of the midlevel cocaine distribution throughout the country, but other dealers also distribute midlevel cocaine to varying degrees. Mexican criminal groups control much of the midlevel cocaine distribution in the Midwest, Pacific, Southeast, Southwest, and West Regions and often are identified as the predominant midlevel distributors in cities within those regions. Dominican midlevel cocaine distributors control much of the midlevel distribution of the drug throughout the Northeast Region as well as in many cities in the Midwest, Southwest, and Southeast Regions such as Atlanta, Cleveland, Houston, Milwaukee, and San Juan. Many Colombian criminal groups distribute midlevel amounts of cocaine in the Northeast Region, primarily in New York City, as well as in some other large cities including Miami, New Orleans, Dallas, Los Angeles, and Houston. African American and Caucasian criminal groups and independent dealers distribute midlevel amounts of cocaine in cities throughout the country; Cuban, Haitian, Jamaican, and Puerto Rican criminal groups distribute midlevel amounts of the drug primarily in cities in the Northeast and Southeast Regions.

African American and Hispanic gangs control most retail powder cocaine distribution throughout the country. Law enforcement reporting indicates that African American and Hispanic gangs are most often identified as retail powder cocaine distributors in every region, and NDTS 2004 data indicate that nationally 24.1 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies report high or moderate involvement of street gangs in powder cocaine distribution in their areas. Local independent dealers or criminal groups whose members are of African American, Caucasian, Cuban, Dominican, Haitian, or Puerto Rican origin also are frequently identified as retail-level distributors in drug markets throughout the country.

Crack is distributed primarily in metropolitan areas, particularly in inner-city and lower-income areas; however, crack distribution has expanded into rural areas over the past year. Every DEA Field Division and HIDTA office reports that crack is distributed in its area, and most report that the drug is widely distributed in metropolitan areas. Several DEA Field Divisions (New England, Caribbean, New York, Philadelphia, Seattle, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C.) and HIDTAs (Appalachia, Arizona, Central Florida, Milwaukee, and Oregon) report that crack distribution has increased in their areas, particularly in rural areas.

Law enforcement reporting indicates that African American and Hispanic gangs control most crack distribution throughout the country; however, Haitian, Jamaican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Mexican, Middle Eastern, Dominican, and Pacific Islander criminal groups also have been identified as crack distributors. NDTS 2004 data also show that gangs are very involved in crack distribution, particularly in metropolitan areas. In fact, NDTS 2004 data indicate that 52.7 percent of state and local law enforcement agencies in large cities report high or moderate involvement of street gangs in crack distribution compared with 28.3 percent of state and local agencies in all areas. Local independent dealers, usually Caucasians or African Americans, are the primary crack distributors in rural areas.

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Primary Market Areas

Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Houston, Miami, and New York are the cocaine Primary Market Areas because these cities have demonstrated very high levels of cocaine abuse and are among the largest regional- or national-level cocaine distribution centers. Dallas and Phoenix are national-level cocaine distribution centers, but cocaine abuse in these cities is significantly lower than in many metropolitan areas. Cocaine consumption is very high in Baltimore, Detroit, and Philadelphia; however, drug seizure data show relatively little cocaine distribution from these cities to other significant drug markets.

Atlanta. Cocaine use in Atlanta is very high and may be increasing as evidenced by an increasing number of ED mentions for cocaine in Atlanta. In 2002 DAWN data show that Atlanta ranked fifth among DAWN reporting cities for the number of ED mentions for cocaine (8,947) behind Chicago (16,227), New York (13,961), Philadelphia (12,437), and Los Angeles (9,364). DAWN data further show that the number of ED mentions for cocaine increased sharply in Atlanta from 5,236 in 1999, to 6,229 in 2000, 8,891 in 2001, and 8,947 in 2002.

A wide range of criminal groups and independent dealers distribute cocaine in Atlanta; however, Mexican criminal groups are predominant. DEA and HIDTA reporting indicate that Mexican and, to a lesser extent, Colombian and Dominican criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in Atlanta. Mexican and, to a lesser extent, Colombian and Dominican criminal groups control most midlevel cocaine distribution. Hispanic gangs such as La Gran Familia and African American gangs such as Crips control most retail cocaine and crack distribution; however, Mexican local independent dealers and criminal groups are increasingly involved in retail-level crack distribution.

EPIC Pipeline, Convoy, and Jetway drug seizure data indicate that Atlanta is among the leading cocaine distribution centers.¹¹ Combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement reported 27 cocaine seizure events on domestic highways and railways and at airports in which Atlanta was identified as the city of origin for the cocaine shipment. Only southwestern cities such as Los Angeles (131), Houston (116), Dallas (62), and Phoenix (56) were identified more often than Atlanta as cities of origin for domestic cocaine shipments. Furthermore, more cocaine was seized on domestic highways and railways and at airports in 2002 and 2003 that originated in Atlanta (682.3 kg) than was seized originating from almost any other city. In fact, only cocaine seizures originating in Houston (1,360.85 kg) and Los Angeles (1,073.37 kg) totaled more than Atlanta for 2002 through 2003. Drug seizure data also show that cocaine is distributed from Atlanta to many significant drug markets such as Charlotte (NC), Charleston (SC), Greensboro (NC), Knoxville (TN), and Roanoke and Virginia Beach (VA) in the Southeast and Northeast Regions.

Chicago. The number of ED mentions for cocaine in Chicago is very high and increasing. DAWN 2002 data show that Chicago ranked first among DAWN reporting cities for the number of ED mentions for cocaine (16,227), much higher than the next closest city, New York (13,961). DAWN data further show that the number of ED mentions for cocaine increased sharply in Chicago from 13,399 in 1999 to 14,879 in 2000, 16,202 in 2001, and 16,227 in 2002.

Mexican and, to a much lesser extent, Colombian criminal groups and DTOs control most wholesale cocaine distribution in Chicago. Mexican criminal groups as well as African American and Hispanic gangs control most midlevel cocaine distribution in the city, distributing the drug primarily to street gangs such as Vice Lord Nation, Latin Kings, and Black Peace Stone Nation, who are the primary retail cocaine distributors. Other African American and Hispanic street gangs serve as significant distributors of crack in Chicago as well, distributing the drug at numerous open-air drug markets, particularly in lower-income areas.

EPIC drug seizure data indicate that Chicago is a very significant regional cocaine distribution center. Combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement reported 21 cocaine seizure events on domestic highways and railways and at airports in which Chicago was identified as the city of origin for the cocaine shipment. Only Los Angeles (131), Houston (116), Dallas (62), Phoenix (56), Atlanta (27), and Miami (22) were identified more often than Chicago as cities of origin for domestic cocaine shipments. EPIC seizure data further show that more cocaine was seized on domestic highways and railways and at airports in 2002 and 2003 that originated in Chicago (239.19 kg) than was seized originating from any other Midwest city. In fact, nationally only cocaine seizures originating in Houston (1,360.85 kg), Los Angeles (1,073.37 kg), Atlanta (682.3 kg), Phoenix (504.12 kg), Dallas (337.32 kg), and Miami (251.91 kg) totaled more than Chicago for 2002 through 2003. Drug seizure data also show that cocaine is distributed from Chicago to significant drug markets throughout the Midwest Region such as Cincinnati, Cleveland, Indianapolis, Des Moines (IA), Detroit, Sioux Fall (SD), Kansas City (MO), and Waterloo (IA) and to drug markets in other regions such as Nashville,  Richmond (VA), and Seattle.

Los Angeles. According to DAWN 2002 data, the number of ED mentions for cocaine in Los Angeles is very high and has increased sharply overall since 1999. DAWN data show that Los Angeles ranked fourth among DAWN reporting cities in 2002 in the number of ED mentions for cocaine (9,364) behind Chicago (16,227), New York (13,961), and Philadelphia (12,437). DAWN data further show that the number of ED mentions for cocaine increased sharply in Los Angeles from 6,768 in 1999, to 9,094 in 2000, and 9,999 in 2001, before declining to 9,364 in 2002.

Most wholesale and midlevel cocaine distribution in Los Angeles is controlled by Mexican criminal groups. Mexican criminal groups as well as African American and Hispanic gangs control most midlevel cocaine distribution. African American street gangs (primarily Bloods and Crips), Hispanic street gangs (such as 18th Street and Mara Salvatrucha), and prison gangs (particularly Aryan Brotherhood and Mexican Mafia) are the primary distributors of powder and crack cocaine in Los Angeles. Asian street gangs such as Tiny Rascal Gangsters and Asian Boyz also distribute wholesale quantities of crack cocaine, primarily in urban areas with large Asian populations.

Los Angeles is a national-level cocaine distribution center supplying wholesale quantities of the drug to significant drug markets in every region of the country. According to combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003, law enforcement reported 131 cocaine seizure events on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in which Los Angeles was identified as the city of origin for the cocaine shipment, more than any other city. EPIC data also show that 1,073.37 kilograms of cocaine were seized on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in 2002 and 2003 that originated in Los Angeles, second only to Houston (1,360.85 kg) and much more than the city with the next highest total, Atlanta (682.3 kg). From Los Angeles cocaine is distributed in wholesale quantities throughout the country to significant drug markets including Atlanta, Chicago, Honolulu, Indianapolis, Las Vegas, Minneapolis, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C.

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Houston. Houston is not a DAWN reporting city and, therefore, Houston ED mentions cannot be compared with other cities; however, data from the Texas Commission on Alcohol and Drug Abuse (TCADA) show that the number of treatment admissions for cocaine in Harris County is very high and increasing. TCADA data for 2002 show that of 4,700 admissions to publicly funded drug treatment facilities, 2,217 were for treatment of cocaine use. In fact, the number of treatment admissions for cocaine in Harris County exceeds the totals for most states. Moreover, TCADA data show that the number of treatment admissions for cocaine have increased in Harris County from 1,933 in 2001 to 2,217 in 2002.

Mexican DTOs and criminal groups are the primary wholesale cocaine distributors in Houston. Colombian, Dominican, and Jamaican criminal groups also distribute cocaine, but to a much lesser extent. A variety of distributors conduct retail-level powder and crack cocaine sales including African American gangs such as Black Disciples, Black Gangster Disciples, and Crips, Hispanic street gangs such as Latin Kings and Mara Salvatrucha, and prison gangs such as Texas Syndicate and Hermanos de Pistoleros Latinos. Most of the street gangs and prison gangs operating in Houston distribute cocaine at open-air drug markets; however, law enforcement reporting indicates that some distributors operating open-air markets in Houston are moving cocaine sales indoors and increasing their use of personal communication devices such as prepaid cellular phones and digital cellular phones.

According to EPIC drug seizure data, Houston is a national-level cocaine distribution center. Combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement reported 116 cocaine seizure events on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in which Houston was identified as the city of origin for the cocaine shipment. Only Los Angeles (131) was identified more often than Houston as a city of origin for domestic cocaine shipments. Furthermore, more cocaine was seized on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in 2002 and 2003 that originated in Houston (1,360.85 kg) than was seized originating from any other city. Drug seizure data also show that cocaine is distributed from Houston to many significant drug markets such as Atlanta, Boston, Chicago, Nashville, New Orleans, New York, and Virginia Beach.

Miami. According to DAWN, the number of ED mentions for cocaine in Miami is relatively high and increasing. DAWN data for 2002 show that there were 5,055 ED mentions for cocaine in Miami, ranking the city only ninth among all DAWN reporting cities. However, the number of ED mentions for cocaine increased sharply in Miami from 4,018 in 1999 to 4,383 in 2000, 4,641 in 2001, and 5,055 in 2002.

Colombian DTOs control most wholesale cocaine distribution in Miami. Haitian criminal groups also distribute wholesale quantities of cocaine, although to a much lesser extent. Several groups distribute midlevel amounts of cocaine in Miami including Bahamian, Colombian, Cuban, Dominican, Haitian, Jamaican, and Mexican criminal groups as well as African American and Hispanic gangs. Hispanic gangs such as Latin Kings and ethnically mixed gangs such as International Posse control most retail powder cocaine and crack distribution in Miami, distributing the drugs primarily at open-air drug markets. African American gangs such as Gangster Disciples also distribute powder cocaine and crack at the retail level in Miami.

EPIC drug seizure data indicate that Miami is a significant cocaine distribution center. Combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement reported 22 cocaine seizure events on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in which Miami was identified as the city of origin for the cocaine shipment. Only Los Angeles (131), Houston (116), Dallas (62), Phoenix (56), and Atlanta (27) were identified more often than Miami as cities of origin for domestic cocaine shipments. Furthermore, EPIC seizure data for 2002 and 2003 show that only cocaine seizures originating in Houston (1,360.85 kg), Los Angeles (1,073.37 kg), Atlanta (682.3 kg), Phoenix (504.12 kg), and Dallas (337.32 kg) totaled more than Miami (251.91 kg) during that period. Drug seizure data also show that cocaine is distributed from Miami to many significant drug markets throughout the country, particularly New York City. In fact, of the 22 cocaine shipment seizures on domestic highways, railways, and at airports reported to EPIC in 2002 and 2003, 18 were destined for New York City. Cocaine also is distributed to other cities such as Houston, Newark, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C.

New York. Although the number of ED mentions for cocaine in New York is decreasing, the number remains very high. DAWN data for 2002 show that the number of ED mentions for cocaine in New York has decreased from 14,799 in 1999 to 14,250 in 2000, 13,898 in 2001, and 13,961 in 2002; however, New York ranks second only to Chicago (16,227) for ED mentions for cocaine among DAWN reporting cities.

Colombian DTOs and criminal groups control most wholesale cocaine distribution in New York, storing multihundred kilogram quantities of the drug in stash sites in Queens and on Staten Island, in Bergen, Hudson, and Passaic Counties in northern New Jersey, and in Long Island and Westchester County suburbs. Dominican criminal groups also distribute significant wholesale quantities of cocaine in New York, particularly in the Washington Heights section of Upper Manhattan. Wholesale cocaine distribution by Mexican criminal groups is somewhat limited but increasing, according to law enforcement reporting. A range of groups conduct midlevel cocaine distribution, particularly Colombian, Dominican, and Jamaican criminal groups but also traditional organized crime groups and African American and Hispanic gangs. Retail powder cocaine and crack distribution is controlled by African American gangs such as Crips and Bloods and by Hispanic gangs including Ņeta, Latin Kings, and Mara Salvatrucha.

EPIC drug seizure data indicate that New York is the predominant cocaine distribution center in the Northeast Region. Combined EPIC data for 2002 and 2003 show that law enforcement reported 15 cocaine seizure events on domestic highways, railways, and at airports in which New York was identified as the city of origin for the cocaine shipment. Only Los Angeles (131), Houston (116), Dallas (62), Phoenix (56), Atlanta (27), Miami (22), and Chicago (21) were identified more often than New York as cities of origin for domestic cocaine shipments. EPIC seizure data further show that more cocaine was seized in 2002 and 2003 that originated in New York (51.59 kg) than was seized originating from any other Northeast city. In fact, nationally only cocaine seizures originating in Houston (1,360.85 kg), Los Angeles (1,073.37 kg), Atlanta (682.3 kg), Phoenix (504.12 kg), Dallas (337.32 kg), Miami (251.91 kg), and Chicago (239.19 kg) totaled more than New York for 2002 through 2003. Drug seizure data also show that cocaine is distributed from New York primarily to significant drug markets in the Northeast Region such as Baltimore, Boston, and Philadelphia and to significant drug markets in other regions including Chicago, Augusta (GA), Jacksonville (FL), and Phoenix.

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Outlook

The rates of cocaine use for all forms of cocaine among adolescents likely will decline in the near term. According to MTF, rates of past year use for cocaine among adolescents appear to have peaked between 1998 and 1999 and have since declined among eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders. MTF data show that rates of past year use for cocaine declined from 3.1 percent in 1998 to 2.0 percent in 2004 among eighth graders, from 4.9 percent in 1999 to 3.7 percent in 2003 among tenth graders, and from 6.2 percent in 1999 to 5.3 percent in 2003 among twelfth graders. Despite these reductions, rates of use for cocaine are higher than were rates of use in the early to mid-1990s.

Continued success in reducing worldwide cocaine production combined with continued success in record-level cocaine interdiction in transit zones may result in worldwide reductions in the availability of the drug in the near term. However, any reductions in cocaine availability will likely be observed in foreign drug markets, particularly those in Europe and South America, prior to any noticeable reduction in the United States. Cocaine trafficking groups will likely resolve to maintain strong availability of the drug in the United States because the cocaine market in the United States is much larger and more stable than any other cocaine market in the world.

End Notes

2. The NSDUH, formerly the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, a project of the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) since 1971, is the primary source of information on the use of illicit drugs, alcohol, and tobacco by the civilian, noninstitutionalized population in the United States.
3. Regions reported in this assessment correspond to the six regions identified in Figure 2 in Scope and Methodology section.
4. NDTS data do not imply that there is only one drug threat per region. A percentage given for a region represents the proportion of state and local law enforcement agencies in that region that identified a particular drug as their greatest threat.
5. MTF is an ongoing study of the behaviors, attitudes, and values of students and young adults. Funded by NIDA, MTF annually surveys eighth, tenth, and twelfth graders in public and private schools in the coterminous United States and a subsample of college students and adults from previous graduating classes who participated in the survey as seniors.
6. The FDSS contains information on drug seizures made by the DEA, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), U.S. Immigration and Customs Service, U.S. Customs and Border Protection, and U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). Seizures by other federal agencies are recorded in the FDSS if custody of the drug evidence is transferred to one of those agencies listed.
7. The PATS tracks trends in drug use and drug-related attitudes that drive drug consumption trends. It is the largest ongoing research study of drug-related behaviors and attitudes of children, teens, and adults.
8. DAWN measures the consequences of drug use through hospital emergency departments. Hospitals eligible for DAWN are nonfederal, short-stay, general hospitals in the coterminous United States that have a 24-hour emergency department. DAWN ED data include information on ED episodes that are induced by or related to the use of an illegal drug or the nonmedical use of a legal drug. TEDS provides data on the demographic and substance abuse characteristics of admissions to publicly funded substance abuse treatment programs that report to individual state administrative data systems.
9. The ADAM program measures the extent of drug use in the high-risk population of people who have been arrested. Data are collected through probability-based sampling, and information is derived from interviews and urinalysis obtained voluntarily and recorded confidentially.
10. Gangs are defined by the National Alliance of Gang Investigators Associations as groups or associations of three or more persons with a common identifying sign, symbol, or name, the members of which individually or collectively engage in criminal activity that creates an atmosphere of fear and intimidation.
11. Seizure amounts recorded in Operation Pipeline, Convoy, Jetway, and Arrival Zone data are based on voluntary reporting to EPIC by federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies. Due to the lack of any mandatory, comprehensive, nationwide drug seizure reporting system, EPIC statistics may not necessarily provide an accurate overview of drug trafficking or seizure trends.

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